Digital Books
Digital Books in the Content-Area Classroom
Cynthia M. Okolo
Michigan State University
The research reported in this paper has been supported by the National Center for Supported
Electronic Text under funding from the U.S. Department of of Education, Office of Special
Education Programs (Award # H327R050005).
Journal of Special Education Technology, 21(4)
1
Digital Books
2
Digital Books in the Content-Area Classroom
As I’m writing this manuscript, I’m sitting aside my 11-year old son who is doing his
homework. As a 6th grader in a public middle school, my son is reading Crispin: the Cross of
Lead (Avi, 2004). According to the author:
Thirteen-year-old Crispin, has no parents, no home, no name. Yet he is being pursued,
and his life is threatened. As he seeks to find out why, he must first learn who and what
he is. We tend to think of medieval times in terms of castles, knights, kings and queens.
And surely, they were there. But that’s not the way most people lived. What you’ll find
here is an accurate depiction of those times from the point of view of an ordinary person
(Avi, 2006).
This book is one of those read in my son’s language arts class during a unit about
historical fiction. He has nightly assignments to read book chapters, which are then discussed in
class. He also completes worksheets related to the book’s vocabulary and answers written
comprehension questions. At the conclusion of the unit, he’ll have to write a report about the
book.
My son is an average reader and, with consistent effort, he is able to read and
comprehend the story. Even so, the book is a difficult one, full of unusual vocabulary (e.g.,
caterwaul, scabrous, palpable) and dense with cultural and historical references that are
unfamiliar to today’s middle schoolers. What about those students who cannot read the text?
What about students who, even if the text was read to them, cannot decipher all the unfamiliar
and difficult vocabulary and concepts? What alternatives are available to help a poor reader
participate with her class as it reads a book like Crispin; a book that is typical of the types of
tradebooks middle school students encounter in language arts and other content area classes?
Digital Books
3
Gone are the days when volunteers read a book into a tape recorder in order to create an
audiotape those students could use to compensate for poor reading skills. Electronic technology
makes many more options available for assisting students with literacy-related problems as they
participate in the general education curriculum. In this column, we will examine issues related to
the use of digital text as an alternative to content-area tradebooks and textbooks.
What is Digital Text?
I have chosen the term digital text to refer to printed text that is converted to a digital
format. Some versions of digital text are not much more than print information available in a
digital form. Digital text “separates the content from the display,” offering a much greater
degree of flexibility (Boone & Higgins, 2003). The content stays the same, but the display itself
can be provided through tactile or auditory means. The display also can be tagged so that
individual or collective elements of the text can be delivered in different formats (e.g., Braille,
sign) and associated with learning supports, such as definitions or explanations (Rose & Meyer,
2002). These additional features, or supports, (Anderson-Inman & Horney, 2000) can extend
readers’ experience with and understanding of the text. Digital texts are available through
publishers, libraries, agencies that serve individuals with disabilities, online services, and schools
or school districts. They also be can be created from print-based text with a scanner and optical
character recognition software.
Digital Versions of Tradebooks
Let’s return to the book, Crispin. If I wanted my son to have a digital copy of this book,
where would I find it?
A plethora of free and commercial sites have sprung up to offer K-12 teachers and
students digital text that can be read online, downloaded to a computer, played on an audio CD,
Digital Books
4
or accessed on an MP3 player. These sites vary considerably in the range and type of books they
offer, the formats in which those books are available, and the requirements for accessing books.
Table 1 displays a partial list of sites that provide digital versions of literature (available at the
time this column was written) and their features. The sites on which I could find the book,
Crispin, are prefaced by an asterisk. As you will see, this commonly used middle school
tradebook is available on more than half of these sites.
Table 1: Web Sites with Digital Tradebooks
Site
Simply Audiobooks;
www.simplyauditobooks.com
Purchase options
Purchase or
rental
Project Gutenburg
www.gutenburg.com
Free
Audible
www.audible.com
Yearly
membership or
purchase of
individual titles
*Amazon;
www.amazon.com.gp.reader
Book must be
purchased from
Amazon, online
reader is an
upgrade to printbased book
Purchase of
individual titles
and school
program
purchase plan
*eReader; www.eReader.com
Types of books
Includes
children’s &
young adult
books and
literature
Mostly books
for adult
readers/interests
Comments
Books can be read
on computer or
stored in MP3 files
or CDs
Includes
children’s
books, young
adult, and
literature
Books can be read
on Palm OS, Pocket
PC handheld,
Symbian
Smartphone, or
Books are in public
domain, or authors
have granted
copyright for single
use
Includes a young Books in proprietary
adult collection
format that requires
free software to be
loaded onto
computer to manage
audiobooks; can
uploaded to many
(but not all) audio
players, or stored on
CD
Selected books
Books can be read
from Amazon’s online, highlighted,
catalog
and annotated
Digital Books
collections
*Google Book Search;
Books.google.com
Free access to
out-of-copyright
books; limited
access (e.g., a
page) to
copyrighted
books
Includes
children’s books
and literature
AudioToGo; audiotogo.com
Monthly
membership fee
Includes catalog
of juvenile
fiction
*Bookshare; bookshare.org
Yearly individual
and institutional
subscriptions;
users must
provide proof of
disability
Includes
children’s and
popular
literature
LibriVox; librivox.org
Free
Some young
adult fiction and
literature
collection
*iTunes; www.itunes.com
Purchase of
individual titles
Children’s,
young adult, and
popular fiction
*University of Virginia Electronic Free
Text Center;
http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/ebooks/
Digital Versions of Textbooks
Some children’s
literature
5
computer; requires
eReader software
(free)
Includes search
features for terms
within books; offers
links to libraries
where books are
available, or sites
where books can be
purchased
Works like NetFlix;
audiobooks on CD
or tape are ordered,
shipped to you.
When you return
one title, another is
sent.
Volunteers
contribute books
converted to digital
format; quality of
text differs due to
varying quality of
scans.
Audio versions of
books in the public
domain; read by
volunteers and
available as MP3
files
Requires free iTunes
software; books play
on computer or
iPod.
Books available as
HTML files or to
download for
Microsoft or Palm
reader.
Digital Books
6
Textbooks remain the primary means of delivering instruction in content-area classes
(Bierman, 2006; Meyers & Savage, 2005), and recent research has shown that student access to
textbooks is an important variable in helping students achieve and meet state standards (Oakes &
Saunders, 2004). Yet, for many students, textbooks pose a formidable barrier to success in the
general education classroom. In a previous column (Okolo, 2006), I reviewed the challenges that
content-area texts pose for students with learning difficulties and disabilities. Digital versions of
textbooks may offer a possible solution.
However, digital textbooks are not as readily available as digital tradebooks, and gaining
access to digital texts for students who could benefit from them is still a formidable task for
schools. Copyright issues are one serious consideration. Publishers are concerned about the
distribution of intellectual property, and making materials widely available on standard digital
can make it easier for users to subvert copyright laws.
The Chaffee Amendment of 1966 eases some copyright restrictions on instructional
materials by allowing authorized entities, such as the National Library Service for the Blind and
the Physically Handicapped, to reproduce and distribute copies of previously published literary
works (with some exceptions) in specialized formats for people with visual impairments and
other print disabilities. The act has been interpreted cover teachers and other volunteers who are
agents of a school system. Hence, by extension, special educators have permission to make
available to students alternative versions of printed text (National Library Service for the Blind
and Physically Handicapped, 2006). This legislation was an important step in ensuring that
individuals with disabilities would have access to accessible texts.
Yet, there is much room for improvement. Many teachers or districts still produce their
own digital versions of texts by scanning individual pages of the book and then storing the digital
Digital Books
7
version on a computer or central server (in the case that multiple teachers will access the text).
However, this is a time consuming process and, depending on the manner in which books are
purchased and used, may violate copyright laws (Kerscher & Fruchterman, 2002; Strangman &
Hall, 2003).
However, educators, parents, and lawmakers are exerting their economic and legislative
powers to improve the quantity and quality of digital texts. The availability of digital versions of
texts is an important factor in school districts’ deliberations about textbook adoption (Perl,
2002). For example, in a district in which our research is situated, teachers chose their new
social studies series because it offers an online version of its text that can be accessed by any
student from his/her home computer and “read” by a screen reader. Furthermore, the text is
accompanied by interactive digital activities designed to engage students with the content and
improve their comprehension. In this district where over 75% of the students report access to a
home computer, teachers view the series as not only a benefit for their students with disabilities.
They also are excited about its potential for students with poor attendance, who can now access
the text and associated learning materials from home.
Most major textbook publishers already offer students and teachers online activities or
resources to support and expand the use of a textbook. A slowly growing number also offer
digital versions of text with the adoption of a textbook series. Many states have enacted some
form of legislation related to the use of textbooks in their schools and the expectations for
publishers to provide digital versions of those texts. Policies vary, but include giving preference
to publishers who provide alternative versions of their text, requiring publishers to provide
alternative formats “to the extent feasible” or upon request, and the creation of a central
repository or clearinghouse for digital books to improve accessibility (Perl, 2002). For
Digital Books
8
information about relevant legislation in your state, see:
http://nimas.cast.org/about/resources/statessurvey.html
With increasing pressure from state and federal legislation, and the adoption of consistent
standards for the production and dissemination of digital text (see below), special educators can
be optimistic that more students will be able to benefit from alternative versions of the textbooks
used in their general education classrooms.
Standards for the production of digital books.
Another serious impediment to the production and dissemination of digital books is the
variety of file formats that publishers use when creating digital material. The lack of a common
format makes it difficult for agencies or teachers to create accessible text that meets the needs of
their students. This challenge is akin to the difficulties consumers face when confronted with
different formats for home entertainment, such as VHS versus Betamax, or more recently, Bluray and High Definition (HD) DVD. Different methods of storing and playing digital
information are not compatible—and one cannot easily transfer information from one format to
another. Furthermore, one has to make a decision about which technology to purchase. A Bluray disc cannot be viewed on a HD DVD player, and vice versa.
In 2001, Congress passed the Instructional Materials Accessibility Act. This legislation
was designed to establish a common file format that all publishers can use when creating digital
material. The National Instructional Materials Accessibility Standards (NIMAS) are under
development with leadership from the Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST) (see:
http://nimas.cast.org/index.html). Stahl (2003) predicts that a common file format will benefit
publishers, agencies, and individuals charged with producing accessible texts. Schools also will
benefit by being able to obtain digital texts from publishers in a much more expeditious manner,
Digital Books
9
and in a format that will not be restricted to one specific type of technology. Another agency, the
National Center for Accessible Media (http://ncam.wgbh.org/ebooks), is focusing on standards
for making multimedia elements used in digital books accessible to individuals who are deaf,
hard of hearing, blind, or visually impaired.
By using the same standard, publishers and users
can more easily add navigation, audio, and other multimedia elements to digital text, making
reading much more responsive to individual needs and differences.
Do digital texts help students with disabilities learn and succeed in content-area classes?
Let’s return to my son. If he had access to a digital version of Crispin, would he
understand the book better or learn more? A growing body of research speaks to this question,
and the short answer is: it depends. First, one has to consider the technology on which a student
reads and/or listens to digital books and second, the interface through which the book is accessed
and manipulated. For example, if a student wishes to read along while listening to a digital book,
then readability of the text display has to be a consideration. This is less of an issue when books
are “read” on a computer than it is when accessing books on a hand-held device. Newer display
technology, such as that available in the Sony Reader
(products.sel.sony.com/pa/prs/index.html?DCMP=reader&HQS=showcase_reader) and the
iLiad (www.irextechnologies.com/home) have “paper-like displays” that offer a clear contrast
between background and text from any angle. The also offer additional features, such as support
for MP3 files and annotation, that can aid text comprehension and usability. Both products link
to online bookstores for easy acquisition of digital books. However, one must weigh the cost of
specialized readers (which cost around $400) against the cost of more general purpose
technology such as laptop computers.
Digital Books
10
Interface matters, too. Although I am hooked on audiobooks for their portability and ease
of use in a variety of situations, I still fumble with the interface for playing books on my iPod.
Although the iPod has a highly graphical interface, it is difficult to move around in the book. I
often turn up the volume by mistake while looking for my place in the book, and the delay in
adjusting features like reading speed can be frustrating. As all users of consumer electronics
probably know, interfaces are rarely standard and are seldom intuitive (Norman, 1993).
More than three decades of research has shown us that merely putting text in a digital
format for display on a computer or other electronic device does not have an appreciable effect
on students’ understanding of that text. As Twyman and Tindal (2006) caution: “It is unlikely
that technology will have much of an impact if it is only used to support typical textbooks” (p.
6). It is how we use the opportunities afforded by digital text, or the enhancements added to it,
that may have the greatest impact on learning.
It is clear that digital text offers extremely important access benefits for students with
disabilities. But benefits for learning are less certain. If students can’t understand text, even
when it is read to them by digitized or synthetic speech, it is unlikely they will learn much from
that text. But, if students are fluent readers with strong background knowledge, audio
presentation of text may actually interfere with their comprehension (e.g., Higgins & Raskind,
1997). What about other enhancements, such as online dictionaries or animated explanations?
Some learners may benefit greatly from these types of additions to text, whereas others may find
such enhancements too difficult to use, unnecessary, or distracting. Anderson-Inman (2006)
sums up the state of our knowledge by reminding us that, “we must find out what the right
options are, how to present them to learners, and how to instruct learners to use the options
available to improve their learning of academic content” (p. 9). The National Center for the
Digital Books
11
Study of Supported Electronic Text (NCSeT; http://ces.uoregon.edu/) has undertaken a
systematic five-year program of research to investigate the effectiveness of nine types of e-text
support for five disabled populations through a rigorous program of experimental research
(Anderson-Inman, 2005). Results from this project, along with efforts of other researchers,
should expand our knowledge of how to enhance digital texts so that students can maximize their
learning in the content areas.
Until then, the important lesson for teachers is to not make assumptions that digital texts,
or any combination of features within digital texts, will benefit all students in the classroom. It is
important to consider both interface and instructional issues, and to evaluate what your students
are learning from their experience with digital texts.
As I finish this column, it is well after 11 pm, and my son still has to read four more
chapters of Crispin before school tomorrow. His eyes are drooping, so I offer to read aloud to
him. As I read, he keeps drifting off to sleep, and I keep gently shaking him to wake him up. In
our high-tech world, we’re not yet at a place where digital books can give our children all they
need to succeed in school.
Digital Books
12
References
Anderson-Inman, L., Horney, M. A. (2000). Transforming text for at-risk readers. Literacy for
the 21st century. Technological transformation in a post-typographical world (pp. 1544). In D. Reinking, M. C. McKenna, L. D., Labbo, & R. Kieffler (Eds.). Hillsdale, NJ,
Erlbaum.
Anderson-Inman, L. (2005). National Center for the Study of Supported Electronic Text. Grant
Proposal submitted to the United States Department of Education, Office of Special
Education Services. Eugene, OR: University of Oregon.
Avi (2004). Crispin: The cross of lead. New York: Hyperion Books.
Avi (2006). www.avi-writer.com/books/crispin.html. Retrieved October 28, 2006
Bierman, P. (2006, May). Reconsidering the textbook. Paper presented at Reconsidering the
Texbook Workshop. Washington, DC: National Academy of the Sciences.
Boone, R., & Higgins, K. (2003). Reading, writing, and publishing digital text. Remedial and
Special Education, 24, 132-140.
Higgins, E. L., & Raskind, M. H. (1997). The compensatory effectiveness of optical character
recognition/speech synthesis on the reading comprehension of postsecondary students
with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 8, 75-87.
Kerscher, G., & Fruchterman, J. (2002). The soundproof book: Exploration of rights conflict
and Access to Commercial EBooks for People with Disabilities. First Monday, 7(6),
retrieved 10/26/06 from http://firstmonday.org/issues/issue7_6/kerscher/index.html.
Myers, M. P., & Savage, T. (2005). Enhancing student comprehension of social studies
material. The Social Studies, 96(1), 18-24.
National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped. That all may read
Digital Books
13
Retrieved 10/30/06 from http://www.loc.gov/nls/reference/factsheets/copyright.html
Norman, D. (1993). Things that make us smart: Defending human attributes in the age of the
machine. New York: Addison-Wesley.
Oakes, J., & Saunders, M. (2004). Education’s most basic tool: Access to textbooks and
instructional materials in California’s public schools. Teachers College Record, 106,
1967-1988.
Okolo, C. M. (2006). Using video to teach content-area information: How can the web help
teacher? Journal of Special Education Technology, 21(3), 48-51.
Perl, E. S. (2002). Federal and state legislation regarding accessible materials. Wakefield,
MA: National Center on Accessing the General Education Curriculum. Retrieved
10/25/06 from http://www.cast.org/publications/ncac/ncac_policy.hthm#report3.
Rose, D. H., & Meyer A. (2002). Teaching every student in the digital age: Universal design
for learning. Washington, DC: Association for the Supervision and Curriculum
Development.
Stahl, S. (2003). The NFF: A national file format for accessible instructional materials.
Journal of Special Education Technology, 18(2), 65-67.
Strangman, N., & Hall, T. (2003). Text transformations. Wakefield, MA: National Center on
Accessing the General Curriculum. Retrived 10/26/6 from
http://www.cast.org/publications/ncan/ncac_textrans.html.
Twyman, T. & Tindal, G. (2006). Using a computer-adapted, conceptually based history text to
increase comprehension and problem-solving skills of students with disabilities. Journal
of Special Education Technology, 21(2), 5-16.