Key Aims for Science Education in New Zealand Schools in
the 21st Century: Messages from the International Literature
A commissioned research report for the Ministry of Education,
Wellington, New Zealand, July 2004
Miles Barker, University of Waikato
Introduction
This paper responds to a call, initially in August 2004, from New Zealand Ministry
of Education curriculum facilitator Mr Chris Arcus, requesting submissions from
teachers, science educators, professional scientists and all other interested parties
seeking their views of desirable future key aims for science education. Specifically, the
request was “to note down your key aims (five or six) for the New Zealand Science
Education Curriculum with a few sentences discussing the reasons for including each”
(Arcus, 2004). This request is part of a much wider initiative, namely a stocktake of the
New Zealand curriculum at large (Ministry of Education, 2002).
This paper should also be seen as an adjunct to an earlier commissioned report
(Barker, Hipkins and Bartholomew, 2004) that addressed the selection of essential skills
(or competencies). It argued that this is inextricably linked to the choice of key aims.
The twelve current aims for science education, as expressed in Science in the
New Zealand Curriculum’ (Ministry of Education, 1993, p.9) – abbreviated below as
SNZC - have recently been explored and critiqued in a very significant section (‘2.6.2
Balancing outcomes – visions of purposes’) of a literature review of New Zealand
science education (Hipkins et al., 2002, p. 23-26). This review, in turn, had drawn on a
growing body of New Zealand-based thinking about the purposes of science education
over the previous decade, for example Bell and Baker (1997).
Rather than my personally adding further to the valuable commentaries
originating from inside the New Zealand social and educational environment, it occurs to
me that a more novel contribution I could make might be to ask, “What has the
international literature of science education had to say about the aims of science
education?” From this perspective might flow some pointers towards how far the
existing structure of SNZC (i.e. its system of four contextual strands and two integrating
strands), if perpetuated, could accommodate the emerging international trends in the
articulation of aims for science education.
Eleven Selected Formulations of Aims for Science Education
In my far-from comprehensive trawl through the international literature I have
selected for presentation here only those formulations of aims which were presented as
numbered items. This has meant that some valuable, but more discursive proposals for
aims have not been selected, for example, Ryder (2001). On the other hand, my
selection of eleven formulations (Figure 1) comprises three lists which were specifically
headed ‘Aims of science education’, but also eight other lists where (in my view) the
intention to propose aims was clear but alternative wording was used, viz. ‘Goals of
science education’ (two), ‘Purposes for science education’ (one), ‘Scientific literacy’
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(three), ‘Structure of science education’ (one) and ‘Public understanding of science’
(one). They span the period 1966 to 2001 (although the majority come from the 1990s);
and formulations from the United Kingdom (five) and the United States of America
(three) predominate over those from Canada, Asia and Australasia (one each).
‘Scientific literacy.’ Pella, O’Hearn, and Gale (1966), paraphrased by Hodson (1998, p.2):
An understanding of:
1) the basic concepts of science.
2) the nature of science.
3) the ethics that control the scientist in his or her work.
4) the interrelationships of science and society.
5) the interrelationships of science and the humanities.
6) the differences between science and technology.
‘Goals of science education.’ Duschl (1990, p.8-11):
1) (Emphasising) the products of science - the facts, principles, laws and theories that make up
the knowledge base and set the standards of science.
2) (Emphasising) the processes of science - the methods employed in the collection, analysis,
synthesis and evaluation of evidence. It is important to stress that the processes of science
include both manipulative and cognitive processes.
‘Aims of science education.’ Claxton (1991, p.110-127):
1) To transmit scientific knowledge.
2) To improve young people’s personal theories about the world, so that they shall make better
sense of it, and therefore act on it more effectively.
3) To make young people better learners.
4) To train routine scientists.
5) To be frontier scientists.
6) To think straight.
7) To give students an understanding of the world of science proper.
8) To establish scientific literacy.
‘Purposes for science education.’ Black (1993, p.3-16):
1) To understand how science is made, by being engaged in doing it.
2) To be able to use the many skills which go to make up the scientific method. Such skills as
observation, measurement, making generalisations, inventing hypotheses, devising fair tests,
designing experiments, and analysing data and interpreting results should all be included.
3) having personal experience of working with the interaction of concepts and skills in planning
their own experiments.
‘Structure of science education.’ Bybee (1993, p.5-7):
1) Empirical knowledge of physical and biological systems.
2) Scientific methods of investigation.
3) Personal development of the student.
4) Social development or achieving the aspirations of society (often referred to as citizenship).
5) Career awareness.
‘Scientific literacy.’ Matthews (1994, p.32-33):
1) Understand fundamental concepts, laws, principles and facts in the basic sciences.
2) Appreciate the variety of scientific methodologies, attitudes and dispositions, and appropriately
utilise them.
3) Connect scientific theory to everyday life and recognise chemical, physical and biological
processes in the world around them.
4) Recognise the manifold ways that science and its related technology interact with the economics,
culture and politics of society.
5) Understand parts of the history of science, and the ways in which it has shaped, and in turn been
shaped by, cultural, moral and religious forces.
Figure 1: Eleven formulations, over the period 1966-2001, of aims for science education.
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‘Public understanding of science.’ Driver, Leach, Millar and Scott (1996, p.12-13):
1) Understanding some aspects of science content: the facts, laws, concepts and theories which go
to make up the corpus of consensually accepted scientific knowledge about the natural world.
2) Understanding the scientific approach to enquiry: empirical enquiry procedures … and the role of
theoretical and conceptual ideas in framing any empirical enquiry and interpreting its outcomes.
3) Understanding science as a social enterprise: ‘science-in-society’ and ‘science-as-society’.
‘Critical scientific literacy.’ Hodson (1998, p.5-7):
1) Learning science - acquiring and developing conceptual and theoretical knowledge.
2) Learning about science - developing an understanding of the nature and methods of science, an
appreciation of its history and development, and an awareness of the complex interactions
among science, technology, society and environment.
3) Doing science - engaging in and developing expertise in scientific enquiry and problem-solving.
‘Aims of the science curriculum.’ Millar and Osborne (1998, p.4-5):
1) Sustain and develop the curiosity of young people about the natural world around them … and
foster a sense of wonder, enthusiasm and interest in science.
2) Acquire a … broad general understanding of the important ideas and explanatory frameworks of
science … so that they can:
a. appreciate why these ideas are valued.
b. appreciate the underlying rationale for decisions … in everyday contexts.
c. respond critically to media reports of issues.
d. express a personal point of view on issues.
e. acquire further knowledge.
‘Aims of science education.’ Osborne (2000, p.225-240):
1) The utilitarian argument: that learners might benefit in a practical sense from learning science.
2) The economic argument: that an advanced technological society needs a constant supply of
scientists to sustain its economic base and international competitiveness.
3) The cultural argument: that science is one of the great cultural achievements of our culture – the
shared heritage that forms the backdrop to the language and discourse that permeate our media,
conversations and daily life.
4) The democratic argument: that (because) many of the issues facing our society are of a socioscientific nature … a healthy democratic society requires the participation and involvement of all
its citizens.
‘Goals of science education.’ Holbrook and Rannikmar (2001, p.6) in collaboration with the
UNESCO Principal Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand:
1) Social values and responsibility, thus promoting the aspirations of society in the manner in which
science knowledge and skills enhances cultural traditions and sustainable development needs.
2) Scientific methods of investigation for problem-solving, as well as an appreciation of the nature of
science.
3) Personal development of the student, communication skills and career awareness.
4) Conceptual knowledge of scientific systems as a basis for conducting investigatory and analytical
studies.
Figure 1 continued.
The Eleven Formulations and SNZC: A Mapping Exercise
For each formulation, I have allocated the enumerated aims across the existing
stranding structure of SNZC (Figure 2). I have treated the four contextual strands as a
single super-strand, ranged alongside the two existing integrating strands, viz.
‘Developing Scientific Skills and Attitudes’ and ‘Making Sense of the Nature of Science
and its Relationship to Technology’. Deciding how to allocate science processes as they
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appear in formulated aims is an issue. I have been guided by a distinction made by
Abd-El-Khalick, Bell and Lederman (1998). Thus, where the author has in mind school
students as performing the process, I have allocated the aim to ‘Developing Scientific
Skills and Attitudes’; and where professional scientists are the focus, I have allocated it
to ‘Making Sense of the Nature of Science and its Relationship to Technology’ on the
grounds that understanding the epistemological commitments of working scientists is an
aspect of the Nature of Science. This process proved to be relatively straight-forward,
with three provisos:
 In seven cases a given aim has been allocated to two strands. Six of these
concerned the two integrating strands. These were cases where an aim advocates the
acquisition of a process but by whom is not specified (e.g. Duschl, 1990) or where the
process is to be apprehended by both students and scientists (e.g. Black, 1993).
 In five cases the cited aim was generic, i.e at a level which subsumes science
education. These aims, allocated to ‘Miscellaneous’, were:
- To make young people better learners (Claxton, 1991).
- To think straight (Claxton, 1991).
- Personal development of the student (Bybee, 1993).
- Career awareness (Bybee, 1993).
- Personal development of the student, communication skills and career
awareness (Holbrook and Rannikmar, 2001).
 In two cases (Black 1993; Osborne 2000) the aims had been deliberately written in
such an integrated way that they seemed to defy their own system of enumeration.
Osborne’s (2000) ‘Aims of science education’, which appear in an article headed
“Science for Citizenship”, in a sense subsume the whole of science education under the
Nature of Science.
Six Conclusions from the Analysis
 The existing structure of SNZC (treating the four contextual strands as a superstand) could potentially accommodate nearly all but six of these 45 aims articulated
internationally, although among the eleven authors there is a persistent and significant
call for cross-cutting and integration of purposes in science education.
 A traditional emphasis on understanding facts and concepts continues, although the
supporting commentaries which the authors provide (not presented here) almost never
treat knowledge acquisition as unproblematic – they invariably explored purposes of
knowledge acquisition.
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Authors
Location
Number of aims listed
Pella, O’Hearn & Gale (1966)
Wisconsin, USA
Six
Duschl (1990)
Pittsburgh, USA
Two
Claxton (1991)
London, UK
Eight
Black (1993)
London, UK
Three
Bybee (1993)
Colorado, USA
Five
Matthews (1994)
Sydney, Australia/Auckland
NZ
Five
Driver, Leach, Millar & Scott
(1996)
London, Leeds, York, UK
Three
Hodson (1998)
Toronto, Canada
Three
Millar & Osborne (1998)
London, UK
Two
Osborne (2000)
London, UK
Four
Holbrook & Rannikmar
(2001)
Bangkok, Thailand
Four
Relevant strand of ‘Science in the New Zealand Curriculum’
The four
Developing
Making Sense of the
contextual
Scientific Skills
Nature of Science and
strands
and Attitudes
its Relationship to
Technology
1)
2) 3) 4) 5) 6)
1)
2)*
2)*
1) 2)
4)* 5)*
4)* 5)* 7) 8)
3)*
1)* 2)* 3)*
1)* 2)*
1)
2)
4)
1)
2)
3) 4) 5)
1)
2)
3)
1)
3)
2)
2e)
1)
2abcd)
Miscellaneous
aims for
science
education
3)§ 6)§
3)§ 5)§
1) 2) 3) 4)
4)
2)*
1) 2)*
3)§
Fgure 2: Showing how eleven authors’ enumerated aims of science education (from Figure 1) map
on to the stranding structure of ‘Science in the New Zealand Curriculum’.
* In these seven cases the aim has been allocated jointly to two strands. (This nearly always involves the
advocacy of skills, either to be attained by both students and professional scientists, or cases where who
is to be upskilled is not clearly specified.)
§ These five aims are at a generic (i.e. cross-curriculum framework) level which subsumes science
education.
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 Acquiring scientific skills and attitudes is similarly a mainstay of the aims presented,
although, as noted above, identifying whether students or professional scientists are the
protagonists has emerged as an issue.
 All eleven authors reflect a growing (and now enormous) international emphasis on
aims relating to the nature of science.
 Only one source (Pella et al., 1966) advocates as an aim (in the manner of SNZC)
“an understanding of the differences between science and technology”. Three others
(Matthews, 1994; Hodson, 1998; Osborne, 2000) mention technology, but merely as
one aspect of a broad societal nexus.
 There are a few examples of aims whose intention goes above or beyond what is
traditionally thought of as the science education curriculum. As noted above, five of the
45 aims cited here are of an over-arching generic (or curriculum framework) type, e.g.
“To make people better learners” (Claxton, 1991). Cross curricular links are sometimes
implicit: in another nine of the 45 aims ‘science education’ is embedded deeply in a
statement which arches over strongly to what could be seem as the domain of other
curriculum areas, most often ‘social studies’. For example, “the interrelationships of
science and the humanities” (Pella et al. 1966) and “social values and responsibility,
thus promoting the aspirations of society in the manner in which science knowledge and
skills enhances cultural traditions and sustainable development needs” (Holbrook and
Rannikmar, 2001).
Messages for the New Zealand Science Curriculum
Do these conclusions resonate with what has been written already within New
Zealand? Hipkins and Barker (2002) argued that the basic structure of SNZC, with its
system of two integrating strands and four contextual strands, actually remains
potentially robust today. This structure could still accommodate the growing and now
long overdue need for substantial internal strand redevelopment (especially of the
integrating strands) that was becoming increasingly apparent all through the 1990s.
However, they also observed that curriculum redevelopment today, in the absence of
teacher development, will be likely to have little impact. As evidence, they cited what
has happened since the introduction of SNZC in 1993: “Some teachers have indeed
struck out in the new directions which SNZC made possible, but many teachers have
responded to the very real pressures by interpreting it as ‘business as usual’ “. There is
the obvious caveat here: devising curriculum aims as an exercise in itself without,
simultaneously, exploring and implementing innovative pedagogies is bound to fail.
Beyond Aims: Implications for Pedagogy
So what pedagogies are needed? Fortunately, we do not need to take this
question up from scratch: the substantial review mentioned above – “Curriculum
Learning and Effective Pedagogy” (Hipkins et al., 2002) – provides a promising
research base which reflects the special character of Aotearoa/New Zealand. However,
it is possible that we are dealing with a science education which, in the words of
respected Canadian science educator Glen Aikenhead “has adhered largely to its
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nineteenth century roots” and has “resisted co-evolving with western science during the
twentieth century” (Aikenhead, 2000, p.257).
The linkage between aims and pedagogies, in the face of this challenge, has
been discussed by British science educator Edgar Jenkins. His view probably sums up
the whole dilemma: “Aims will need to become more student-centred, reflecting what
studying science can do for the student rather than what the student may eventually be
able to contribute to science. The challenge to much of the traditional pedagogy of
school science is likely to be no less severe. Science teaching is dominated by work in
the laboratory and characterised by an emphasis upon secure and known outcomes. In
addition, there is some evidence that, while science teachers do not use a narrower
range of pedagogical techniques than some of their colleagues teaching other subjects,
the approach to teaching individual science topics is often remarkably standardised …
Much repetitive (and often outdated) laboratory work will need to be abandoned to make
room for genuine collaborative scientific investigation, perhaps extending over several
months” (Jenkins, 2000, p.223).
References
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