EVENT verbs (~ uses of verbs) – single occurrence, beginning and end
STATE verbs (~ uses of verbs) – state of affairs over a period, may have no well-defined start and end)
Better to talk of uses because many 'state' verbs in English also appear as 'event' verbs: e.g. I’m having a bath. / We’re having a party next week. / She’s having a baby. [vs. have a problem] e.g. I've been tasting the food. It tastes delicious. e.g. What do you think? / I'm thinking about what you said e.g. You’re being ridiculous! / The car is being difficult.
Basic verb meanings:
1. STATE
Trubar was a major figure of the Reformation.
Queen Victoria reigned for 64 years.
2. SINGLE EVENT
Trubar wrote the first Slovene book.
3. SET OF REPEATED EVENTS (HABIT)
Tartini played the violin (every day).
4. TEMPORARY
She was cooking when the phone rang.
A. PRESENT STATE (Present Simple)
I'm tired.
Do you like potica?
Ice floats on water.
- state may stretch indefinitely into past/future]
B. PRESENT EVENT (Present Simple)
I name this ship the Titanic.
Beckham shoots at goal.
- rarely does an event begin and end with speech
C. PRESENT 'HABIT' (Present Simple) = sequence of events
I (often) go to England.
I go to work by bike.
It rains a lot in April.
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E
F
D TEMPORARY PRESENT (Present Continuous)
Oh no, it's raining.
She's still sleeping.
They are living in a rented flat (at the moment).
- compare usual uses of rain and sleep (habit) and live (permanent)
- for single events the Continuous emphasises durational aspect
Agassi serves / is serving.
- with states the Continuous emphasises limited duration
I live / am living in Piran.
TEMPORARY HABIT (Present Continuous)
I'm taking dancing lessons (this winter).
He's cycling to work (while his car is being repaired).
- meaning temporary (Continuous) plus repetitive (habitual present)
OTHER PRESENT REFERENCES
- continuousness (irritation/disapproval)
You're always doing that
- repetition of temporary events
Whenever I see her she's talking on her mobile.
- tact/politeness (past tense)
Did you want to speak to me.
I wondered if you could do it for me.
Parallel meanings to A-F
* note: with A and C often used to e.g.
I used to go there a lot. / It used to belong to my mother or would with the sense of predictable behaviour e.g. He would sit on my knee purring.
* note B rare in the past
Problem: choosing between past tense and perfect aspect
PAST TENSE (Simple) when happening relates to definite time in the past ('then')
- identified by past time adverbial e.g. yesterday / last night / last Monday / a week ago / in the morning / in June / in
1964 / at four o'clock / the other day
- preceding language (co-text)
Mary has left home – I was so surprised when I heard.
- extra-linguistic factors
Did Andrea call?
PERFECT ASPECT when happening related to later time or event ('past time related to present time')
He was/ has been in the United States for four years.
She was/has been an invalid all her life.
[he's back/still there]
[dead or alive]
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C
B
The Present Perfect
A STATE LEADING UP TO PRESENT
The house has been empty for ages.
INDEFINITE EVENT(S) IN A PERIOD LEADING UP TO PRESENT
Have you (ever) been to Edinburgh?
We've all had bad colds (this winter)
* note on B: with recent indefinite past Am E speakers prefer Past Simple:
Have you eaten yet? Did you eat yet?
HABIT IN A PERIOD LEADING UP TO PRESENT
He has attended regularly (this term).
D PAST EVENT WITH PRESENT RESULT
John has arrived.
She has broken her leg.
[he's here]
[still broken]
* note: except for B, the state, habit or event continues
Adverbials used with Present Perfect:
I haven't seen him since Tuesday / last week / I heard so far / up to now/ for weeks / for ages lately
Adverbials used with Present Perfect or Past Simple (latter more likely):
I saw [have seen] him today this week recently
NB: A frequent error in translating from Slovene to English or for Slovene speakers generally is over-use of the Present Perfect, in particular when there is a past time adverbial present or when the context makes clear that the event or action we are talking about was clearly in the past.
For example: * I have found it in on the Internet.
* I have read it somewhere.
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B
A
The Present Perfect Continuous
Same meaning as Present Perfect but period leading up to present has LIMITED
DURATION
I've been cutting the grass.
He has been attending regularly.
You've been crying!
I've been reading your book.
[activity up to recent past, results in present]
[event verb, action incomplete, compare with I've read your book.
]
The Past Perfect (Continuous)
'Past in the past' or time in the past seen from definite viewpoint in the past
The house had been empty for months (when I bought it).
They had argued and she had moved out.
I'd been living there for some time when I first met him.
It had been raining and the path was slippery.
[limited duration]
Past perfect used for earlier event, but can use conjunction such as after, when and Past
Simple
After the teacher left [had left] the room, the children started messing about.
will / shall
- neutral prediction:
Tomorrow will be cold and cloudy
- common in main clauses:
If anyone breaks the circuit, the alarm will go off.
She'll do it if you ask her.
In that case, I'll have to change my plans.
- element of intention:
I'll see you outside.
be going to
- result of present intention
I'm going to stay in and work.
She's going to be a ballet dancer when she grows up.
- result of present causative actors [expected it to happen soon]
I think I'm going to faint. [I feel dizzy]
It's going to rain. [dark clouds]
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D
C Present Continuous
- future action involving some element of human planning: either the speaker's intention, or action according to a plan, programme, schedule or arrangement:
We’re going to Greece this summer.
She’s coming here this evening.
They’re appearing at Križanke in June.
I’m studying in Graz next semester.
I think he’s arriving this afternoon.
He’s moving to London.
[soon]
They're leaving. [very soon]
The last example shows that we do not have to have an adverbial. Events not involving human planning are not referred to with the Continuous e.g. *It’s raining tomorrow. *I’m sneezing in a moment.
D Present Simple
- in adverbial, conditional and other subordinate clauses (
When he arrives, the band will start playing.
If she's late there will be a change of plan. will in main clause):
Note: conjunctions used with Present Tense in this way: after, as, before, once, until, when, as soon, as, if, even if, unless, as long as
- in that clauses after hope, suppose etc.
I hope she isn't late.
- event seen as absolutely certain because determined by calendar, timtetable or schedule, or are part of unalterable plan:
The train leaves in half an hour.
We sail at dawn.
Exams start tomorrow.
The 15 th is a Tuesday.
He retires next month.
What time do we arrive? will / shall + Continuous
- adds temporary meaning to the
Don't call at six, we'll be eating. will construction:
- something happening as 'a matter of course'
When will you be going?
The train will be arriving soon.
- polite alternative to simple will
When will you be coming again? construction:
[you assume the person is coming]
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E other ways of expressing future meaning
The President is to visit Spain.
The minister is about to resign.
[official arrangement]
Future in the past
- future seen from past viewpoint:
They were about to / going to set off when the phone rang.
He was to pay dearly for his ambition.
Past in the future
- will + Perfect Infinitive
Tomorrow, they will have been married twenty years.
[literary]
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The basic meaning of the Continuous is LIMITED DURATION
The notion of LIMITED also includes TEMPORARINESS and INCOMPLETION
The notion of duration can be broken down further into CONTINUATION,
REPETITION (or HABIT) and DEVELOPMENT
The meaning is also affected by the semantic nature of the LEXICAL VERB involved
The Continuous draws attention to the durational aspect of activities (before and after a time indicated), whereas Simple forms do not. This is easiest to illustrate with past tense uses, where the Continuous ‘frames’ a simple action:
1a When I saw him he was running away.
1b When I saw him he ran away.
Limited duration is illustrated by the following:
2a
I’m living in Koper.
2b I live in Koper.
In 2a, it is clear in the speaker’s mind that the condition is temporary, whereas in 2b there is no such limitation. Or compare these two:
3a
I’m enjoying the seaside.
3b I enjoy the seaside.
3a refers only to this particular holiday or day out, whereas 3b is a general statement of personal preference
Two more examples:
4a
I’m going to work by bus (this week)
4b I go to work by bus.
The adverb may or not be present in 4a, but the implication is always that this is a temporary thing – perhaps because my car is being repaired – whereas in 4b the speaker has no limitation in mind.
With ‘event verbs’, the use of the Continuous shows that the process is incomplete:
5 The bus is stopping.
[it hasn’t stopped completely yet]
This is why we frequently use the Continuous to describe ongoing processes involving change (probably the most frequent use in translation):
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6a Tension on the border is increasing / decreasing.
6b Inflation is rising / falling.
6c Unemployment is going up / going down.
6d Teenagers are drinking more these days.
6e Technological change is getting faster every year.
6f An increasing number of people are buying DVD players.
Note that certain stative verbs are not used in this way: we wouldn’t say ‘is being’ in 6e or ‘are having’ in 6f.
At school and in course books there is a lot of emphasis on the use of the Continuous to describe current action (e.g. I’m writing on the board), but this use is not very common in the real world, except perhaps when we can’t see the person (e.g. on the phone or when they are in another room) or in response to the general question What are you doing?
However, when this question is modified by an adverbial such as ‘these days’ then the meaning changes:
7 Q: What are you doing these days?
A: I’m working on my dissertation.
The response here does not refer to current action, but to interrupted action of limited duration. Similarly, in the next example, the speaker is referring to an action that may only happen once or twice a week (and not at the moment of speaking):
8a I’m taking dancing lessons.
8b
I’m learning Italian.
A further use of the Continuous, connected with the idea of limited duration, is emotional colouring, often to show disapproval:
9a
He’s always doing that.
[and it annoys me]
9b He’s always arriving late for work.
9c
She’s forever talking on the phone.
9d
They’re constantly arguing.
Note that the last two examples do not need to refer to current action but to habitual action. Such uses generally involve an adverb (always, forever, constantly) and in the spoken language are marked by a falling intonation pattern.
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Types of verbs and the Continuous
DYNAMIC USES
These are most likely to take the Continuous.
ACTIVITY VERBS ask, call, drink, eat, help, learn, listen (to), look at, play, rain, read, say, teach, work, write, etc.
PROCESS VERBS accelerate, change, decrease, fall, grow, increase, rise, slow down, widen, etc.
TRANSITIONAL EVENT VERBS arrive, die, fall, land, leave, lose, stop, etc.
The use of the Continuous suggests the transition is incomplete e.g.
He’s dying.
MOMENTARY VERBS hit, knock, kick, nod, tap etc.
The use of the Continuous suggests repetition e.g.
Someone’s knocking at the door.
VERBS OF BODILY SENSATION ache, feel, hurt, itch, throb, tingle
STATIVE USES
Usually do not take the Continuous.
VERBS OF PERCEPTION hear, see, smell, taste, etc.
VERBS OF PERCEPTION believe, dislike, doubt, forget, forgive, hate, hope, imagine, know, like, love, perceive, prefer, realise, recall, recognise, remember, think, understand, want, wish, etc.
RELATIONAL VERBS apply to, be, belong to, concern, consist of, contain, cost, depend on, deserve, equal, have, include, involve, lack, matter, need, own, possess, require, resemble, suffice, tend, etc.
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