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INTRODUCTION
JORDAN
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GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENT
GEOGRAPHY
Jordan is relatively small country situated at the junction of the
Levantine and Arabian areas of the Middle East. The country is
bordered on the north by Syria to the east and south. To the west is
Palestine, while Jordan’s only outlet to the sea, the Gulf of Ababa, is to
the south. Jordan occupies an area of approximately 96,188 square
kilometers including the Dead Sea, making it similar in size to Austria
or Portugal. However, Jordan’s diverse terrain and landscape belie its
actual size, demonstrating a variety usually found only in large
countries.
Western Jordan has essentially a Mediterranean climate with a hot dry
summer, a cool, wet winter and two short transitional seasons. However,
about 75% of the country can be described as having a desert climate
with less than 200 mm of rain annually. Jordan can be divided into
three main geographic and climatic areas: the Jordan Valley, the
Mountain Heights Plateau, and the eastern desert, or Badin region.
ENVIRONMENTAL THREATS AND THE JORDANIAN
RESPONSE
The Jordanian habitat and its wildlife communities have undergone
significant changes over the centuries and continue to be threatened by
a number of factors. A rapidly expanding population, industrial
pollution, wildlife hunting and habitat loss due to development have
taken a toll on Jordan’s wildlife population. Jordan’s absorption of
hundreds of thousands of people since 1948 has resulted in the overexploitation of many of its natural resources, and the country’s severe
shortage of water has led to the draining of underwater aquifers and
damage to the Azraq Oasis.
In recent decades, Jordan has addressed these and other threats to the
environment, beginning the process of reversing environmental decline.
A true foundation of environmental protection requires awareness upon
the part of the population, and a number of governmental and nongovernmental organizations are actively involved in educating the
populace about environmental issues. Jordan’s Ministry of Education is
also introducing new literature into the government schools curriculum
to promote awareness of environmental issues among the young
students.
The National Strategy presents specific recommendations for Jordan on
a sect oral basis, addressing the areas of agriculture, air pollution,
coastal and marine life, antiquities and cultural resources, wild life and
habitual preservation, population and settlement patterns, and water
resources. The plan places considerable emphasis throughout on the
conservation of water and agriculturally productive land, of which the
contamination or loss of either would bring swift and significant
consequences to Jordan.
WILD CONSERVATION
The diversity of animals in Jordan was formerly much more varied
than at present. Ancient rock drawings and Byzantine mosaics suggest
that the Jordanian landscape was populated by an abundance variety of
wildlife, including ostrich. Gazelle, Arabian Oryx, Nubian ibex, Asiatic
lion, Syrian bear and Follow deer. It is also believed that crocodiles used
to inhabit the Jordan River. However, many of these species have been
either decimated or driven to extinction because of over hunting or
habitat destruction.
Wildlife and Vegetation
Throughout history, the land of Jordan has been renowned for its
luxurious vegetation and wildlife. Ancient mosaics and stone engravings
in Jawa and Wadi Qatif show pictures of Oryx, Capra ibex and oxen.
Known in the Bible as the “land of milk and honey,” the area was
described by more recent historians and travelers as green and rich in
wildlife. During the 20th century, however, the health of Jordan’s
natural habitat has declined significantly. Problems such as
desertification, drought and over hunting have damaged the natural
landscape and will take many years to rectify.
Fortunately, Jordanians have taken great strides in recent years toward
stopping and reversing the decline of their beautiful natural heritage.
Even now, the Kingdom retains a rich diversity of animal and plant life
that varies between the Jordan Valley, the Mountain Heights Plateau
and the Badia Desert region.
Figure 1: Arabian Oryx at
The Shomari Reserve.
FLORA
Jordan flora covers the wild plants of different ecosystems and habitats
in Jordan.
Plants are shown within their wider landscape environment showing
soil types, geological features, and grouping with other plant species.
Spring is the high season for Jordanian flora, and from February to
May many regions are carpeted with a dazzling array of flowering
plants. More than 2000 species of plants grow in Jordan, and the variety
of the country’s topography and climate is reflected in the diversity of
its flora. Most of these species, however, depend heavily on the winter
rains. When there is a warm, dry winter–as in 1984–many flowers
either fail to appear or are considerably reduced
Figure 2: Anemones in a thorny bush
Springtime in Jordan.
Jordan boasts a wide variety of flowering wild flowers, but the most
famous is the national flower -the black iris. Fields of this flower, which
is not found in Europe, can be seen in masses near the town of Madaba.
Figure 3:Jordan national
Flower, the Black Iris.
The highlands of Jordan host forests of oak and pine, as well as
pistachio and cinnabar trees. Olive, eucalyptus and cedar trees thrive
throughout the highlands and the Jordan Valley. Jordan’s dry climate
is especially conducive to shrub trees, which require less water. Species
of shrubs can be found throughout all the geographical regions of
Jordan.
Figure 4: Ancient olive trees at the village of Tibneh near Irbid
Contrary to popular conceptions, deserts are often teaming with life.
Many small shrub plants thrive in the Badia, where they are often
grazed by the goats of local Bedouin tribes. Several species of acacia
trees can be found in the deserts, as well as a variety of sturdy wild
flowers and grasses which grow among the rocks in this demanding
habitat
Figure 5: Flowers.
The Mountain Heights Plateau
The highlands of Jordan separate the Jordan Valley and its margins
from the plains of the eastern desert. This region extends the entire
length of the western part of the country, and hosts most of Jordan’s
main population centers, including Amman, Zarqa, Irbid and Karak.
We know that ancient peoples found the area inviting as well, since one
can visit the ruins of Jerash, Karak, Madaba, Petra and other historical
sites, which are found in the Mountain Heights Plateau. These areas
receive Jordan’s highest rainfall, and are the most richly vegetated in
the country.
The region, which extends from Umm Qais in the north to Ras anNaqab in the south, is intersected by a number of valleys and riverbeds
known as wadis. The Arabic word wadi means a watercourse valley,
which may or may not flow with water after substantial rainfall. All of
the wadis, which intersect this plateau, including Wadi Mujib, Wadi
Mousa, Wadi Hassa and Wadi Zarqa, eventually flow into the Jordan
River, the Dead Sea or the usually dry Jordan Rift. Elevation in the
highlands varies considerably, from 600 meters to about 1,500 meters
above sea level, with temperature and rainfall patterns varying
accordingly.
The northern part of the Mountain Heights Plateau, known as the
northern highlands, extends southwards from Umm Qais to just north
of Amman, and displays a typical Mediterranean climate and vegetation.
This region was known historically as the Land of Gilead, and is
characterized by higher elevations and cooler temperatures.
Figure 6: Wadi Finan .
Figure 7: Wadi Mujib .
DANA RESERVE
The Nature Reserves of Jordan

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This is the "showpiece" of the RSCN. The Reserve was established in 1993
in southern Jordan and covers 320 square kilometers
It is the only reserve, which is relatively easy to reach by public transport:
there are buses from Amman, from Ma'an and also from Tafileh. There are
no direct buses from Petra some 40kms away, however, a pity. To get from
the one to the other, you have either a circuitous bus ride via Ma'an, a taxi
costing somewhere between 20 and 30JD or you just have to hitch,
probably in several cars.
Originally another community being deserted by its people, Dana village
occupies a wonderful site looking out over Wadi Dana and is now gradually
coming back to life with the jobs associated with the Reserve. One of the
first measures taken by the RSCN was to install a reliable water supply, and
the fruit that can now be produced locally is made into jams, which are sold
at the Reserve shop, together with soap made with the local olive oil.
Medicinal herbs, also grown in the valley, are to be found on sale here, as
well as silver jeweler made in the workshop nearby. Tourism revenue is
reported to be covering all the running costs of the reserve.
Dana Nature Reserve is a
system of wadis and mountains,
which extend from the top of the
Rift Valley down to the desert
lowlands of Wadi Araba, an
elevation drop of over 1600
meters.
It embraces two major
biogeographical zones and four
distinct vegetation zones and
contains a remarkable diversity
of landscapes, ranging from
wooded highlands and rocky
slopes to gravel plains and sand
dunes. It supports a wide variety
of wildlife, including many rare
species of plants and animals.
The total number of species recorded so far consists of 697 plants, of
which 3 are new to science, and 282 animals. Many of these are now very
rare and some threatened with extinction: animals like the Grey Wolf,
Nubian Ibex, the Lesser Kestrel, Eagle Owl and the Desert Monitor Lizard.
So far, 45 endangered or vulnerable animals have been found in the
reserve, making it truly a place of world importance. Apart from its wildlife,
Dana is also rich in archaeology and culture. About 100 archaeological
sites have been identified, of which the ancient copper mines in Wadi
Feinan are particularly special, being considered the most important
archaeological complex in southern Jordan outside of Petra.
There is a wide variety of hiking trails, from short one hour circuits to dayhikes requiring an over night in camps. All trails offer spectacular views
and rock formations and some pass important archaeological sites,
including the ancient copper mining center of Feinan.
Dana is located in the southern district of
Tafila, about 200 kilometers south of
Amman. Due to its wide variety of climate
zones (it has mountain heights of 1500
meters and descends to the deserts of Wadi
Araba), it is rich in wildlife. But, until
recently, development and degradation
threatened its biodiversity.
The history of the Dana project is very
interesting and adds to the allure of the site.
In 1992, a group of 12 women from
Amman decided they wanted to help the
people of Dana Village. The village had
decayed to such a state where poverty and
poor living conditions were forcing people
to abandon Dana. The village lacked basic
services and water was not reaching the village. When the project was
started there were only 300 remaining villagers. The women, who called
themselves the "Friends of Dana," saw a great potential in the village. It was
beautiful, rich in culture, history and bordered what could be one of the most
important nature reserves in the Kingdom. The group worked with the Royal
Society for the Conservation of Nature (RSCN), the largest environmental
non-governmental organization in Jordan, to raise funds to improve the
infrastructure of Dana. As of 1997, they have renovated 65 village houses,
built a new mosque, paved the main road and provided a new springhead so
that people have easy access to water (1). This project, combined with the
socio-economic project of RSCN, has given Dana a new start.
The Dana project officially ended in 1996. It was a $3.3 million initiative
negotiated by the Government of Jordan, RSCN, the World Bank and the
United Nations Development Programmed (UNDP). Its main aims were to
ensure the conservation of biodiversity of the Dana Wild lands Reserve and
to enhance the capacity of RSCN to conserve biodiversity throughout Jordan
(2). However, in 1997, the Global Environment Facility granted another $3
million to continue and expand the effort.
Under the project, surveys were conducted at the site to assess the status of
the area. A wide variety of species were found including the possibility of
three new plant species and over 25 globally threatened plant and animal
species. In addition to these, over 90 archaeological sites were found in the
area. In 1993, the Reserve, which covers 320 square kilometers, was
officially declared. The RSCN then started the Dana Project a month later in
January 1994.
The Dana Project consisted of a protected area management plan, a plan to
involve the local people and a tourism plan. RSCN worked to develop a
regulated zoning system that would define areas of activities. These include
the Core Conservation Zones, which are areas restricted to people; the
Grazing Zones, where livestock are permitted, and the Intensive Recreation
Zones, where tourist facilities are located. The project had to deal with the
human impact on the reserve. Bedouins living in the reserve and villagers
living around it were all dependent on the resources. The Bedouins and the
villagers relied on the vegetation for their own sustenance as well as for their
livestock. However, what the RSCN found was that the area was overgrazed
and the soil was eroding and becoming less productive. The challenge was to
reorient the lifestyles of the indigenous people to a more conservationist
mode.
The project turned to developing enterprises, which could reconcile the
human pressures on the environment. The Wadi Dana enterprises initiative
was developed by building on local skills and initiatives. Opportunities were
created for local people to gain a livelihood from the nature reserve without
destroying it (3). Fruit growing on neglected trees around the village were
turned into dried health foods. Medicinal herbs were introduced as a cash
crop to terraced gardens. A jewelry making initiative was established.
Artisans design and create a range of silver jewelry, which are crafted in the
likenesses of the plants and animals of the reserve. RSCN has asserted that
these and other initiatives have brought increasing jobs and income to the
local communities, and that the communities have come to rely on the
presence of the reserve for their success.
In addition to the pressure of local peoples on the reserve, RSCN faced the
pressure of development and industrialization. Limestone quarrying from a
nearby cement factory and the threat of copper mining in the area presented
challenges to the RSCN and the ecologic value of Dana. Quarrying and
mining threaten the environment through the destruction of habitat, through
the destruction of aesthetic appeal and through the contamination of
groundwater and soil. Copper ore is found in Wadi Dana and Keherbit EnNahas of the nearby Feinan area with reserves of about 60 million tons.
Copper was mined, smelted and refined on a large scale for over 5,000 years
in the area of Feinan in the Wadi Araba (4). Indeed, the copper deposits of
Dana were the mainstay of a thriving copper smelting industry during
Roman and Byzantine periods. In 1993, the Government of Jordan signed
agreements with the World Bank and the RSCN that it would not extract
copper in the reserve. However, in 1997 the Natural Resources Authority
tried to enter the Dana Nature Reserve to take samples of copper deposits
and is still showing interest (5). Mining is one of the most environmentally
destructive activities and is a threat to natural resources and habitats around
the globe.
A low-impact tourism initiative was
developed. The first venture into eco-tourism
in Jordan, it is a highly regulated tourism
facility with limited access to people and
vehicles. The hope is that tourists will also
help the people of the village by buying their
wares. Furthermore, virtually all the new
tourism related jobs (including tour guides,
rangers, campsite managers, cooks, cleaners, receptionists and shop
managers) have been given to the local people.
So far, the project has been deemed a success. As of 1996, visitor numbers
was 5,000 and covered 30 percent of the running cost of the reserve. By the
end of 1996, tourism provided 14 jobs for local people. World Bank
President James Wolfenson declared the Dana Reserve "...a model for
successful nature conservation efforts elsewhere" (6). Challenges remain,
but hopefully the Government of Jordan will realize the economic
contribution low-impact tourism efforts offer.
Wadi Arabah: Part of the Rift Valley
Wadi Araba extends circa 165 kilometers north from the Red Sea to the
escarpment overlooking the Southern Ghor of the Dead Sea and the
width of the valley ranges from circa 10 kilometers to 30 kilometers.
Along the length of the center of Wadi Araba runs the boundary
between the modern states of Palestine and Jordan.....
Wadi Arabah begins at the southern end of the Dead Sea and extends
southward for 112 miles to the Gulf of Aqabah. It is an arid depression
from six to twelve miles wide -- in reality a continuation of the Great
Rift Valley -- this section has been known from ancient Biblical times as
the Arabah. Beginning at 1292 feet below sea level the valley gradually
ascends as it goes southward for 67 miles to a watershed, which rises
660 feet above sea level. From here it quickly descends until 45 miles
further southward it reaches the Gulf of Aqabah at Ezion Geber.
Surface explorations along with minor digs carried on by Doctor Nelson
Glueck revealed a number of ruined villages and many copper and
silver mines from which ore was dug in the time of Solomon (900 - 1000
B.C) and during the time of the Nabateans (300 BC to AD 100) ...
Quadrate method:
Introduction: The quadrate is a square area of varying size marked off for
the purpose detailed study. By the study of numerous quadrates, a
knowledge of structure of vegetation obtained.
Usage:
Used in:
1-counting individuals of each species to determine their relative
abundance & importance.
2-determination of exact differences in the composition & structure of
vegetation.
Materials: 4 sticks, each one have 1 m long.
Method:
1-we used 4 sticks, which have 1 m long for each.
2-arrange them in a square shape.
3-counte the individuals of each species founded in the quadrate.
4-list the species & the # of individuals counted on a paper.
5-repeat this method 5 times.
6-measure the density & abundance.
Line method:
Introduction:
The line method is a method that used for studying the quantitative
Characteristics of communities, that is part of determining the
Population distribution.
This method allows sampling to be made by studying in lines across
a defined area and recording the species that occur along this line.
Materials:
Rope for making the line, its length is 10 m.
Procedure (Method):
We made a line by a rope in a certain area, then we recorded the
trees that occurred along the line, this method is repeated (10)
times (10 lines in the same direction), and in each time we took
a plant sample for each tree and stuck it on the notebook, then
we calculated:
(1) The number of trees under each line.
(2) The maximum height measured from the base the
base of the plant and up towards its highest point.
(3) The diameter of each tree.
(4) The average of maximum height.
Soil
The biosphere is often described as being made of the atmosphere, the
hydrosphere and the lithosphere. All three components of the biosphere
influence and in turn are affected by living organisms. Each part is
made of living and non-living factors which are closely interacted and
cannot be separated from each other.
Soil is defined as a mixture of rock and minerals material with organic
matter .soil is the net result of the action of climate and organisms,
especially plants on the earths crust.
Soil is related to vegetation type.
Chemical properties of soil:
TITLE:
Measure organic matter in soil samples from Mediterranean region .
Objective:
To measure the a mount of organic matter in soil samples from
Mediterranean region that indicates future food for plant .
Materials:
- Three samples of red soil from Mediterranean region
-chemical materials: A-dichromate NK2Cr2O7
B-H2SO4
C- Phosphoric acid and distilled water
- Boiling water
Procedure:
-The samples should be ground to pass 0.5 mm screen.
-Transfer 1gram of dried soil to 500ml conical flask.
-Add 10ml of NK2Cr2O7 to each flask.
-Add 20ml of concentrated H2SO4 To each flask.
-Shake for one minute, and then place all flasks on a boiling water bath
for 15 minute.
-Cool , add 200ml distilled water to each flask.
-Add 10ml of phosphoric acid to each flask.
-Add 1ml of diphenylamine indicator solution to each flask.
-Titrate by adding ferrous sulfate from a burette to each flask.
-Continue to add the ferrous sulphate in small quantities until the color
flashes to green.
RESULTS:
Sample number one consumed (7 ml) of ferrous sulfate until green color
appear, so percent carbon can be calculated as
0.003*100(V1-V2)/Wt sample
V1= volume of N dichromate
V2=volume of ferrous sulfate
W= Wt. Of soil sample
%C in sample one = 0.003*100(10-5.5)/0.2g
%C in sample two = 0.003*100(10-7)/0.2g
%C in sample three = 0.003*100(10-6)/0.2g
Physical properties:
1) Gaseous volume:
This property refers to the volume of pore space per unit, radius depth
and origin of sample.
Objective:
To find out the volume of pore space per unit of soil.
Materials:
1. a cylindrical glass ( opened from both sides )
2. 2 soil samples
3. water
4. graduated cylinder
Procedure:
- place the soil sample in the cylindrical glass (10 cm depth)
- put it in a plastic container
- press it firmly then level it to the top add water until the soil
saturates
- measure water volume
Results:
G.V = Volume of Water / Volume of Soil * 100
G.V = ML * 100 / (3.12 * R * R * H)
1) G.V = 18 ml * 100 / (3.12 * 1.25 * 1.25 * 10) = 37volume unit
2) G.V = 24* 100 / (3.12 * 1.25 *1.25*10) = 49.2 V.U
3) G.V = 22* 100 / (3.12 * 1.25 * 1.25 * 10) = 45 V.U
Conclusion:
- As the spaces between soils particles increase the gaseous volume
increase.
2) Permeability:
Objective:
To find out the amount of water penetrating a unit area per time.
Materials:
- cylindrical glass ( opened from both sides )
- graduated vessel
Procedure:
- Add soil sample in to the cylinder (50 cm).
- Add 50 ml of water from the vessel with out allowing the surface layer
to dry out.
Results:
Permeability = volume of water / unit area of soil. Time
= ml / (3.12 * 1.25 * 1.25) * min
1. 50 / (3.12 * 1.25 * 1.25 * 26) = 0.39 cm/min
2. 50 / (3.12 * 1.25 * 1.25 * 89) =0.12 cm/min
3. 50 / (3.12 * 1.25 * 1.25 * 37) = 0.28 cm/min
Conclusion :
As time increase permeability decrease
3) Capillarity:
Objective:
- To find out the tendency of water to move through soil by
capillarity means.
Materials:
-cylindrical
glass
- Water container
-cotton
Procedure:
--Block 1 end of the cylindrical glass by cotton
-fill the glass with 5cm soil sample
-place the cylinder in a container leaving few cms of water on the
bottom
-observe rise of water
Results:
T1=3.5
T2=4
T3=4.05
Conclusion:
Increasing time leads to increasing in capillarity.
Conclusion :
AL_Tafila classified in anew subdivision of the semi- arid
Mediterranean bio climate cool variety is found in this region. The (Q)
value according to Emberger list approximately between 30 to 70 . The
average minimum temperature (m) during the coldest month (January)
varies approximately between (-1°C)and (+7°C) , it indicate a cool
variety (m) between (-1 and 3°C) and warm variety (m between +3°C
and 7°C) of the semi- arid Mediterranean bio climate the average
maximum temperature (am) during the hottest month (August )
range between (26° C _ 33°C ). The region is slightly warmer than
sub-humid zone . The soil in this region from type sandy soil it has
high capillarity and less permeability little of organic matter and small
amount of gases volume between soil particles .This nature for the soil
suitable vegetation type which grow in it
**** REFERENCES ****
(1) Vegetation of Jordan, by Dr. D. Al-Eisawi.
(2) Long, G, 1957. The bioclimatology and vegetation
of east Jordan.
Rome, UNESCO / FAO.
(3) 1983, Studies on the flora of Jordan. 10. Ten New
Taxa to the flora
Of Jordan. Candollea, 345-364.
(4) Jundi, M .1977. The Natural Plants and their
Ecological Distribution
In Jordan. Ministry of Agriculture. Amman.
(5) The internet.
Prepared by :
(1)Aula Al-Khawaldeh
(2)Rund Al-Hiyari
(3)Rawan Obedat
(4)Amal Sulayman
(5)Fathyeh Hasan