HSC Geography
Ecosystems at Risk Unit
Contents
Part A: Ecosystems and their Management

Biophysical Interactions which lead to diverse ecosystems and their functioning

Vulnerability and resilience of ecosystems

The need to protect and manage ecosystems

Evaluation of Traditional and contemporary management strategies
1
Part A: Ecosystems and their Management
1.0
Biophysical interactions which lead to diverse ecosystems
and their functioning
What is an Ecosystem?
 “An Ecosystem is where the living (biotic) and the non-living
(abiotic) components of the biophysical environment interact
to form a unique place.”
 The Term “Ecosystems” is short for “ecological systems”.
 The word “Ecological” comes from the simple Greek word oikos,
meaning "a house" or "a place to live in"
1.1
The Diversity of Ecosystems
Categorising Ecosystems
There are two types of ecosystems:
 Aquatic Ecosystems (Water based)
 Terrestrial Ecosystems or BIOMES (Land-Based)
Diversity

There are distinct patterns of land-based ecosystem found around the
world. Land based ecosystems are often referred to as BIOMES.

The reason why we have a diversity (wide variety) of ecosystems
around the world is because the four spheres interact differently in
different places.

The ATMOSPHERE has a major influence on why there is a diversity
of ecosystems, in particular the role of temperature and precipitation.
2

These two processes impact on plant life in the biosphere. Where
there is an abundance of temperature and precipitation, there is thick
vegetation (rainforests). Where there is an abundance of temperature
but little precipitation there is little vegetation (deserts). Where there is
mild temperatures but an abundance of water we get woodlands or
grasslands.

As can be seen from the Biomes map, latitude seems to play a key
role on the diversity of ecosystems. (Remember the concept of
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE)
3
Diversity of Terrestrial Ecosystems around the World
Many places on Earth share similar climatic conditions despite being found in geographically different
areas. As a result of natural selection, comparable ecosystems have developed in these separated areas.
Scientists call these major ecosystem types biomes. The geographical distribution (and productivity) of the
various biomes is controlled primarily by the climatic variables precipitation and temperature. The map in
below describes the geographical locations of the eight major biomes of the world. Because of its scale,
this map ignores the many community variations that are present within each biome category.
Most of the classified biomes are identified by the dominant plants found in their communities. For example,
grasslands are dominated by a variety of annual and perennial species of grass, while deserts are occupied
by plant species that require very little water for survival or by plants that have specific adaptations to
conserve or acquire water.
The diversity of animal life and subdominant plant forms characteristic of each biome is generally controlled
by abiotic environmental conditions and the productivity of the dominant vegetation. In general, species
diversity becomes higher with increases in net primary productivity, moisture availability, and temperature.
4
Adaptation and niche specialization are nicely demonstrated in the biome concept. Organisms that fill
similar niches in geographically separated but similar ecosystems usually are different species that have
undergone similar adaptation independently, in response to similar environmental pressures. The
vegetation of California, Chile, South Africa, South Australia, Southern Italy and Greece display similar
morphological and physiological characteristics because of convergent evolution. In these areas, the
vegetation consists of drought-resistant, hard-leaved, low growing woody shrubs and trees like eucalyptus,
olive, juniper, and mimosa.
5
Diversity of Terrestrial Ecosystems around the World
Many places on Earth share similar climatic conditions despite being found in geographically different areas. As a result of natural
selection, comparable ecosystems have developed in these separated areas. Scientists call these major ecosystem types biomes. The
geographical distribution (and productivity) of the various biomes is controlled primarily by the climatic variables precipitation and
temperature. The map in below describes the geographical locations of the eight major biomes of the world. Because of its scale, this
map ignores the many community variations that are present within each biome category.
Most of the classified biomes are identified by the dominant plants found in their communities. For example, grasslands are dominated
by a variety of annual and perennial species of grass, while deserts are occupied by plant species that require very little water for
survival or by plants that have specific adaptations to conserve or acquire water.
The diversity of animal life and subdominant plant forms characteristic of each biome is generally controlled by abiotic environmental
conditions and the productivity of the dominant vegetation. In general, species diversity becomes higher with increases in net primary
productivity, moisture availability, and temperature.
Adaptation and niche specialization are nicely demonstrated in the biome concept. Organisms that fill similar niches in geographically separated but
similar ecosystems usually are different species that have undergone similar adaptation independently, in response to similar environmental
pressures. The vegetation of California, Chile, South Africa, South Australia, Southern Italy and Greece display similar morphological and
physiological characteristics because of convergent evolution. In these areas, the vegetation consists of drought-resistant, hard-leaved, low growing
woody
shrubs
and
trees
like
eucalyptus,
olive,
juniper,
and
mimosa.
6
1.2
Biophysical Components in the Functioning of Ecosystems
 Varieties of ecosystems around the globe have developed because
of the way the four spheres interact differently in each place.
 Copy out the Atmosphere, Biosphere, Lithosphere, and Hydrosphere
notes on pages 20, 21, 22.

7

 For ecosystems to function (that is to work and exist) a number of
processes in the four spheres of the biophysical environment
operate and work together (interactions).
 By the processes working together they form the diversity of
ecosystems.
 Consider Alpine Ecosystems.
 The processes in the four spheres combine to make this
unique ecosystem?
 The lithosphere (high altitude) affects the
atmosphere (Environmental lapse rate)
 In turn the low temperatures in the atmosphere
affect the biosphere with no trees above a certain
altitude (alpine)
 What is really important to appreciate is that by understanding how
the four spheres operate naturally and by clearly recognising that
they interact and depend on each other, we as humans can better
manage them. This is crucial to the understanding of this unit of
work.
8
In each biophysical sphere below, identify processes that function in each in Kosciuczko
Atmosphere
Hydrosphere
Lithosphere
Biosphere
9
Answers
1) Atmosphere
Climate
 Temperature
 Precipitation
 El Nino/La Nina
Weather
 Storms
 Cyclone/Hurricanes
Air
 Chemicals (Nitrogen, oxygen, CO2 etc)
2) Lithosphere
Weathering
 Mechanical
 Chemical
Erosion
 Transport and Deposition
Plate tectonics and Continental Drift
Isostasy
Mass Movement
Topography
Soil
3) Hydrosphere
Flows
 Precipitation
 Currents
 Longshore drift
 River discharge
 Waves
 Runoff
 Rivers
Storages
 Lakes
 Oceans
 Rivers
 Streams
4) Biosphere
Energy Cycling
Nutrient Cycling
Succession Invasion
10
Name two processes from each sphere and show how they interact in other spheres and
create diverse ecosystems
Process
Temperature
Main sphere
Atmosphere
Other spheres that it interacts in
Type of ecosystem it
can create
Hot temperatures can interact with
Tropical forests
biosphere.
Desert Ecosystems
Atmosphere
Lithosphere
Lithosphere
Hydrosphere
Hydrosphere
Biosphere
Biosphere
11
1.2.1
Biophysical Structure of Ecosystems- What are the biotic
(living) components of an ecosystem?
 ORGANISMS: The most fundamental unit in an ecosystem is a
single, living organism. Consider a tiny olive green South
American paradox frog, so called because it starts life as a huge
tadpole eventually to emerge as a tiny organism.
 POPULATIONS: Each individual paradox frog lives surrounded
by individuals of its own species. These groups of individual
organisms are called POPULATIONS.
 COMMUNITIES: They are assemblages of populations of two or
more functionally similar species. Thus, the community can be
made up of a population of paradox frogs and other species of
frogs and salamanders. Such a community exists in a patch of
flooded forest adjacent to the Rio Negro River in Brazil.
 ECOSYSTEM: One or more functional groups, often many
functional groups, in a defined set of abiotic (nonliving)
environmental conditions form an ecosystem. The tropical forests
of the Amazon Basin can be regarded as one such ecosystem.
 BIOSPHERE/ ECOSPHERE: The biome in turn is part of the
biosphere, the part of the earth that supports life. Sometimes the
biosphere is referred to as the ecosphere when abiotic (nonliving) elements are also included.
12
The Components of an Ecosystem
Source: Kleeman et al (2000) A Geography of Global Interactions 2. Heinemann:Port Melbourne (p.7)
13
1.3
Important processes in Ecosystems FunctioningCycling Processes
A large part of ecosystem functioning is the transfer and circulation of
materials and energy between the biotic and abiotic components.
There are two major cycles
 Energy Cycles
 Nutrient Cycles
1.3.1
The Energy Cycle
 Energy flows through an ecosystem one way.
 There needs to be a continual input of energy from the sun for all life
on earth to continue.
 The energy from the sun is made available to the rest of the
ecosystem by PRODUCER organisms (plants).
 The organisms can change the sun’s energy into chemical energy
through a process called photosynthesis
 A simple food chain shows the transfer of energy through part of an
ecosystem.
Producer
1st order
consumer
Herbivore
2nd order
consumer
Small
carnivore
3rd order
consumer
Large
carnivore
 As in the above food chain
o Every food chain begins with a producer organism
o Energy is flowing in the direction of the arrows.
o Some energy is lost at each step in the chain as heat
o The source of energy is the sun.
Source: Hill, J et al (1990) Excel HSC Biology. Glebe: Pascal Press.
14
Terms used in feeding relationships
 living organisms can be classified by how they consume energy:
 Autotrophs (producers) an organism that makes its own food

Hetrotrophs (consumers) organism that feeds on another
living thing- animals
 Herbivore-A consumer that feeds on plant material
 Carnivore- A consumer that feeds on other animals
 Omnivore- a consumer that feeds on plant and animal material
 Insectivore- a consumer that feeds on insects
 Decomposer- an organism that absorbs energy from dead tissue or
waste products (bacteria and fungi)
 Scavenger- A consumer that feeds on dead and decaying
organisms (vultures)

The Suffixes (end of a word) “vore” means to eat, and “troph”
means feeding
15
Biomass Pyramids in the energy cycle
 The feeding level of an organism is its trophic level. For example the
1st Level is the producers as all producers feed the same way. The
second trophic level is herbivores as they all feed the same way.
 Biomass is the total weight of all organisms at a particular trophic
level.
 A biomass pyramid shows the total weight (biomass) of organisms at
each level for a particular ecosystem.
 If the number of organisms at each level is considered, this produces
a food pyramid.
3rd order consumer
2nd order consumer
1st order consumer
producer
Increasing trophic
levels; the biomass
and number of
organisms decreases
 Why does the biomass and number of organisms decrease when
you move up each trophic level?
 Consider this description from G. Tyler Miller (1971):
Three hundred trout are needed to support one human for a
year. The trout, in turn, must consume 90,000 frogs, that
must consume 27 million grasshoppers that live off of 1,000
tons of grass.
 Not all energy that is taken by plants moves up the food chain.
16
 Some energy is used and lost by each and as a result it only
passes on a small amount of energy.
 For example,
o a plant takes up 100kj of energy from the sun.
o It uses 50kj for its own use and loses 40kj in heat.
o A herbivore comes and eats the plant which only has 10kj of
energy to pass on.
o The herbivore uses and loses 90% of the original intake and
leaves 1kj of energy when the carnivore feeds on it.
o And so on.
17
An Annotated Diagram of the Energy Cycle in Ecosystems
Heat/
Respiration
Producers
Key
18
1.3.2
Nutrient Cycling
 Nutrients are the elements or compounds that help feed plants and
animals.
 Eighteen essential nutrients are commonly recognised in
ecosystems, but the main ones, called macro nutrients, are: carbon,
oxygen, nitrogen, calcium, potassium, phosphorus, sulphur and
magnesium.
 Organisms do not produce their own nutrients; they have to come
from an outside source.
 All nutrients originate from rocks or from the atmosphere. However,
they enter ecosystems through a variety of ways: weathering; in
rainfall; biological processes (including human activity); and by
deposition.
 Also, nutrients leave ecosystems. Erosion may remove nutrients
from the soil, humans remove them when they harvest the crop, and
rain can wash away essential elements.
 As in all systems the flow of nutrients depends upon how much
enters (inputs) the ecosystem and how much exits (outputs) the
ecosystem. Like everything, a fine balance is required between
inputs and outputs.
19
A Simple Flow Diagram of Nutrient Cycles
Outputs
Inputs
Carbon,
Phosphorus,
oxygen, calcium,
potassium,
sulphur, and
magnesium cycles
20
Controls on Ecosystem Function
Now that we have learned something about how ecosystems are put together and how materials and
energy flow through ecosystems, we can better address the question of "what controls ecosystem
functioning"?
There are two theories of the control of ecosystems:
The first, called bottom-up control, states that it is the nutrient supply at the bottom of the trophic
pyramid to the primary producers that ultimately controls how ecosystems function. The theory states
that if the nutrient supply is increased, it will result in an increase in production of autotrophs which will
increase the numbers in the other trophic levels as they will respond to the increased availability of
food (energy and materials will cycle faster). Conversely, if there is a reduction of nutrients at the
bottom of the trophic pyramid it will cascade through the other trophic levels and reduce the
number of organisms.
The second theory, called top-down control, states that predation and grazing by organisms in the
higher trophic levels on lower trophic levels ultimately controls ecosystem function. For example, if you
have an increase in predators, that increase will result in fewer grazers, and that decrease in grazers
will result in turn in more primary producers because fewer of them are being eaten by the grazers.
Thus the control of population numbers and overall productivity "cascades" from the top levels of the
food chain down to the bottom trophic levels.
So, which theory is correct? Well, as is often the case when there are two clear choices to choose from,
the answer lies somewhere in the middle. There is evidence from many ecosystem studies that BOTH
controls are operating to some degree, but that NEITHER control is complete. For example, the "topdown" effect is often very strong at trophic levels near to the top predators, but the control weakens as
you move further down the food chain. Similarly, the "bottom-up" effect of adding nutrients usually
stimulates primary production, but the stimulation of secondary production further up the food chain is
less strong or is absent.
Thus we find that both of these controls are operating in any system at any time, and we must
understand the relative importance of each control in order to help us to predict how an ecosystem will
behave or change under different circumstances, such as in the face of a changing climate.
Source: Adapted from University of Michigan (2006) The Flow of Energy: Higher Trophic Levels
http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange1/current/lectures/kling/highertrophic/trophic2.html (downloaded 23/10/2006)
Activity
Draw TWO diagrams (one for bottom up control and one for top down control) that
outline each Control on Ecosystem Functioning theory.
21
2.0
Vulnerability and Resilience of Ecosystems
VULNERABILITY -how sensitive an ecosystem is to injury.
RESILIENCE
how well an ecosystem can recover?
 Ecosystems exist in a state of DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM.
(constantly changing while maintaining balance).
 If a significant change occurs, it impacts on the entire food
chain in the ecosystem.
 Thus, some ecosystems are vulnerable (sensitive) to
changes.
 The significant changes can either be
 Natural Stress events
 Human Stress.
 Furthermore, the stresses can be
 CATASTROPHIC (immediate and no chance
of recovery)
 GRADUAL (Slow rate of stress)
 Whereas some ecosystems can withstand stresses and
recover rapidly or slowly (resilience).
Owens, D. et al. 2003:MacQuarie Revision Guide: HSC Geography. South Yarra: MacMillian
22
2.1
Vulnerability of Ecosystems
There are FOUR factors that can make an ecosystem
vulnerable
1) LOCATION
The more specialised the population of organisms is to its
location, the more vulnerable it is likely to be to changes in
its surroundings
2) EXTENT (SIZE AND SHAPE)
The smaller and thinner an ecosystem the more vulnerable
it is to change and disturbances.
3) BIODIVERSITY
The less variety of species in an ecosystem the more
vulnerable it becomes.
4) INTERDEPENDENCE
The more species rely on each other to survive within an
ecosystem the more vulnerable an ecosystem is.

Ecosystems that have organisms that relies on only a few
other organisms (low levels of interdependence) are highly
vulnerable
If something was to happen to ONE organism in
this relationship then both organisms die

Whereas, organisms that depend on a variety of organisms
(high levels of interdependence) are less vulnerable
If something was to happen to ONE organism in
this relationship then the other organisms can
continue as they have the other relationships to
depend on
23

The interdependence of species is best illustrated through
the concept of symbiosis:
- SYMBIOSIS (MUTUALISM)- is the intimate association
of two species. Each species contributes to the benefit
of the other.
+
+
 Other type of relationships include :
i. PARASITISM, where organism (parasite) obtains
nutrients from but harms another organism (the
host)
-
+
ii. COMMENSALISM, where one organism lives on
the bodies of other species, or in their nests, but do
not harm nor help them
0
+
iii. ALLELOPATHY, where one organism, usually a
plant, releases a chemical to stop the growth of
others
-
+
24
2.2
Resilience of Ecosystems
To understand Ecosystem Resilience it is important to
appreciate it is part of a concept called STABILITY
Stability
Persistence
Constancy
RESILIENCE
 PERSISTENCE is the ability of the ecosystem to resist
changes.
 CONSTANCY is the ability of a population within the
ecosystem to maintain its numbers or size within the limits
of natural resources.
 RESILIENCE is a natural function of ecosystems to adapt
to the changes and restore equilibrium after some stress
or change, either natural or human-made.
25
Concepts related to resilience in ecosystems
 There are three important concepts related to resilience in
ecosystems-elasticity, malleability and amplitude. These are
shown in the diagram below.
 ELASTICITY is the rate of recovery of an ecosystem after a
stress.
 MALLEABILITY in an ecosystem is the difference between
the final recovery level and the level of the pre-stress period.
The greater the malleability, the less the ecosystem's
resilience. The lower the malleability, the greater the
ecosystem's resilience.
 AMPLITUDE is the threshold level of change that prevents an
ecosystem from recovering to its original level.
26
Source: BOS. 2004. HSC Geography Exam. Sydney: BOS
Explain how ecosystem resilience is shown in this diagram.
27
Vulnerability and Resilience Summary
Vulnerability
Resilience
Symbiosis
Genetic
Diversity
28
2.3
Impacts due to Natural Stress

One stress that can be placed on an ecosystem is by nature itself

Natural stress can range from gradual stress (ecosystems can
slowly adapt) or catastrophic stress (which can destroy an
ecosystem entirely)
Types of Impacts on Ecosystems due to
Natural Stress
Natural Stress
Catastrophic
Gradual
Change in stream course
Cyclone,hurricane,typhoon,tornado
Fire
Flood
Adaption, evolution
Ecological succession
Primary Succession
Disease
Drought
Landslide
Secondary succession
Climatic changes
Immigration
Disease
Volcanic eruption
Earthquake
29
One concept that is crucial in understanding ecosystem resilience is
SUCCESSION.

Succession is the process of life entering in an ecosystem.

A clear area with no life can be formed in many different ways;
tectonic forces, volcanic eruption, exposure due to weathering and
erosion, natural disasters etc.

The plain barren area created will have a community of organisms
colonise the area.

The first plants to grow may be lichens and mosses. These are
called colonisers.

They may be followed by small shrubs, then larger shrubs and a
number of animals.

One group of organisms colonises the area, changing it and making
it more suitable for succeeding (following) organisms.

It may be many years before a well established, stable community
(called the climax community) occurs.

This process of organisms colonising an area, changing it and giving
way to succeeding organisms is called ecological succession.
Task Complete and annotate the diagram that shows the process of
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
30
Succession (ecological succession)
1
2
An area has no life on it due to it being
newly formed or it experienced a
catastrophic event.
4
3
5
A stable community is created otherwise
known as a CLIMAX COMMUNITY
31
Mt St Helens: An Example of Natural Stress. (18th of May 1980)
Source: Kleeman et al. 2000:Global Interactions.p.25
32
Human induced modifications to energy flows, nutrient
2.4 cycling and biophysical components
Changes as a Result of Human Activity
 An ecosystem and its food webs are complex.
 If we change one thing in a food web it can have major effects
throughout the food web.
 A natural ecosystem maintains a natural balance.
 If human beings change part of a natural ecosystem, such as removing
the large trees from a rainforest, they change that ecosystem forever; It
is an irreversible change.
 Task: List and briefly explain FOUR human impacts that you can
think of that impact on ecosystems.

What is significant is how human activities modify:
 The Energy Cycle
 The Nutrient Cycle
33
2.4.1
Human modifications to Nutrient Cycles
Human modification of ecosystems can have serious impacts on the NUTRIENT CYCLE.
The following questions are from the Phosphorus in the Landscape information sheet on
the Learning Gateway. This is a case study approach for you to understand how humans
modify nutrient cycles by using the Phosphorus Cycle as an example.
1. What is a nutrient in an ecosystem? (not in the text)
2. Briefly explain the nutrient cycle. (not in the text)
3. What is the major cause of blue-green algae infestations in our waterways?
4. What is happening to the frequency and severity of these infestations?
5. Why is blue-green algae in our waterways a concern?
6. How is it suggested we reduce the frequency and severity of these blooms?
7. Where does phosphorus naturally come from?
8. What role does phosphorus play in nature?
9. The text identifies two main categories on how phosphorus enters our waterways: Point
Sources and Diffuse Sources. Using the examples given in the text define these two
terms.
10. In most parts of the world, what is the most common way phosphorus enters the
waterways in:
(a) Densely Populated Areas?
(b) Rural Environments?
11. In the Northern Hemisphere what is the major source of phosphorus in the rural
environment?
12. How is the Australian experience with phosphorus different to the rest of the world?
13. Explain how phosphorus enters the dryland catchment areas of Australia?
14. Identify and explain how phosphorus moves in the landscape?
15. What two biophysical spheres are interacting in this process?
16. How is phosphorus exposed and moved in the Murray-Darling Basin?
17. What is the main message for the managers of the Murray-Darling Basin?
18. What is another source of phosphorus in local areas of Eastern Australia? Give an
example.
19. What does this information tell us about human modifications to the nutrient cycle? In
your answer refer specifically to the concept of “dynamic equilibrium” (i.e. balance
between inputs and outputs). (min 200 words)
34
2.4.2
Human modifications to Energy Cycles
INTERUPTIONS TO THE FLOW OF ENERGY BY HUMANS: LAND CLEARING AND HUNTING
SCENARIO WRITING
With reference to the Woodland Ecosystem diagram and your knowledge of the energy cycle:
1) Describe and explain how the energy cycle would be affected when humans clear the
vegetation. (300 words)
2) Describe and explain how the energy cycle would be affected when humans over hunt an
animal/s. (300 words)
35
Task:
Explain how over-fishing of the secondary consumer in the ecosystem
shown could affect the energy flows in this ecosystem. (10-20 lines)
36
3.0

Importance of Ecosystem Management and Protection
Ecosystems
are
vitally
important
to
the
proper
functioning of life on Earth.

There are many reasons for humans to manage and
protect ecosystems:

Firstly, to MAINTAIN GENETIC DIVERSITY.

Secondly, they have VALUES . There are three ways in
which humans value ecosystems:
- UTILITY VALUE: We value them as they are useful
- INTRINSIC VALUE:
The right to exist from a
spiritual and philosophical perspective and from an
amenity perspective.
- HERITAGE VALUE: It connects us to our past and
needs to be maintained for the future. It is valued
because it helps us understand the earth better thus
contributing to education and science. Furthermore,
it can add to a society’s identity.

Lastly, Ecosystems need to be managed and protected
because we need to ALLOW NATURAL CHANGE TO
PROCEED. We need to let nature do what nature does
best or the world cannot function properly.
37
3.1

MAINTENANCE OF GENETIC DIVERSITY
One condition for what makes an ecosystem vulnerable is lack
of biodiversity.

Biodiversity is categorised in three ways:
Biodiversity
Genetic Diversity

Species Diversity
Ecological Diversity
For this dot point we are interested in GENETIC DIVERSITY.
 GENETIC DIVERSITY is an aspect of biodiversity but focuses
on variety of life at the smallest level; the genetic level.
 What is significant about maintaining genetic diversity is that
ecosystems can collapse without a variety of genetics.
 If a particular disease enters an ecosystem and attacks one
genetic variety, it can have disastrous effects.
 An excellent example of lack of genetic variance and the
impacts of disease is shown by the Potato Blight in Ireland in the
mid 19th Century.
38
HISTORY AND LESSONS OF
POTATO LATE BLIGHT:
An Example of the Impacts of Lack of Genetic
Diversity During the Irish Potato Famine in the
1800s
”Late blight” is one of the most devastating
diseases of potato and tomato worldwide. It
was responsible for the devastating Irish potato
famine of the 1840's and has continued to be
important to the present. Since 1990, late blight
of potato is currently a major problem in
almost every potato-growing region of the
world. If left unmanaged, this disease can
result in complete destruction of potato or
tomato crops.
While scientist around the world look for new
ways to control this plant disease and growers
spend millions of dollars combating this
problem, the history and the human impact of
the disease is all but forgotten. This plant
disease, which is probably totally unknown to
most people, does have an interesting past and
has played a role in human history.
The potato plant originated from South
America in the mountains of southern Peru
where the Incas used it a food source as far
back as 400 B.C. and is still a major food crop
for the people in that region today. The
Spaniards came across the potato in their quest
for gold in South America sometime in the
16th century and brought it back with them to
Europe. Initially Europeans used it as feed for
livestock, and thought of it as unfit for humans.
Potatoes were introduced into Spain in 1570
and into England and Ireland about 1590 or a
few years earlier. For 250 years all potatoes
grown in Europe were descendants of these
two introductions.
In France, King Louis XVI became an
advocate of the potato. In a neglected field
near Paris he grew a wonderful crop of
potatoes protected during the day by royal
guards. Realizing that any crop so guarded
would impress the peasants, he cleverly
withdrew the guards at night, allowing the
peasants to raid the fields, which they did.
Soon the king's goal was accomplished-all over
France potatoes were growing.
Over time the Europeans learned that the
potato was in fact a nutritious crop that could
produce large amounts of food in just a small
area of ground. In many parts of Europe it
became the main food item, especially for the
peasant farmers. Nowhere was this probably
truer than in Ireland in the 1800s.
In the early 1800's Ireland was a major
exporter of grains, meat, and dairy products to
England. Peasant farmers used these cash crops
to pay rent to the wealthy English and Irish
absentee landowners. But to feed themselves,
the Irish peasant farmers grew potatoes, which
could yield large amounts of food on relatively
small plots of land. Besides being a high
yielding crop, potatoes are a very nutritious
crop being high in carbohydrates, proteins,
minerals, and vitamins. In a typical day an
Irishman may have eaten 8 to 14 pounds of
potatoes and little else.
From 1800 to 1841 the population of Ireland
grew from 4.5 million to over 8 million based
on their agricultural export economy and the
potato as their major food crop. By 1845 there
were over 2 million acres of potatoes farmed in
Ireland, mostly a genetically similar variety.
Thus conditions were set for an impeding
disaster; a very large population of people
dependent on one crop with little genetic
diversity.
The summer of 1845 was unusually warm and
wet. Potato fields were soon infected by blight,
causing the plants to rot in the field. Potatoes
crops that appeared sound were harvested but
soon rotted in the cellars. The disease became
epidemic not only on Ireland but most of
Northern Europe and by the fall of 1845 it was
apparent that widespread famine was going to
occur.
Late blight again returned in the following
years. In 1847, the English government blamed
the large landowners for the famine and
demanded that they pay a tax to support the
relief efforts. In response, the landowners
simply increased the rent fees to the peasant
farmers, which resulted in civil unrest. By
1851 the population of Ireland had dropped
from a high of 8.2 million to 6.5 million. At
least one million died due to starvation and
disease, while the rest had immigrated to
39
English speaking areas of the world, mainly
Canada, U.S.A, and Australia.
What have been some of the impacts of the
Irish potato famine? Late blight was one of the
first plant diseases to be demonstrated to be
caused by a microorganism and thus put an end
to the theory of spontaneous generation (a
generally accepted theory that some life forms
arose spontaneously from non-living matter).
The work at that time on late blight was also
the beginning of a new science called plant
pathology. This disaster also demonstrates how
plants that are adapted to one area may be out
of place and susceptible to various problems if
moved into new locations. Finally, it shows
how extremely important it is to maintain
genetic diversity in the crops we raise and not
have any one population rely too heavily on
one strain of crop.
Answer the following questions in full
sentences in your book
1.
What is late blight?
2.
Where did potatoes originate?
3.
When and how did potatoes come
to Europe?
4.
How many genetic varieties of
potatoes came to Europe?
5.
Why did potatoes become such a
staple part of the diet of many
Europeans especially the Irish?
6.
What happened to the size of the
Irish population after the
introduction of potatoes?
7.
How many acres of land were
used to grow the potatoes in
Ireland in 1845?
8.
What happened to the climate in
Ireland in 1845?
9.
What did this change in climate
do to the potatoes?
References
University of California Cooperative Extension
http://cekern.ucdavis.edu/Custom_Program573/History_and_Lessons_
of_Potato_Late_Blight.htm
-
Fowler, C. and Mooney, p. (1990) Shattering: Food,
Politics, and the Loss of Genetic Diversity, University of Arizona
Press Chapter 3
VALUE OF DIVERSITY
http://primalseeds.nologic.org/shattering3.htm
Ohio State University Extension Fact Sheet @
http://ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/3000/3102.html
10. What was the population size of
Ireland in 1845 and then 1851?
11. What was the cause of the
population size change?
12. What did the late blight in Ireland
demonstrate?
13. How does this case study show
the importance of maintaining
genetic diversity in ecosystems?
40
Example for the importance of genetic diversity
Intraspecies Diversity Helps Ecosystems, Study Says
Adapted from National Geographic News August 21, 2002 (http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/08/0821_020821_diversity.html)
hough it has long been known by
scientists that an ecosystem needs a
variety
of
plants
and
animals
(biodiversity) for optimal functioning,
University of Georgia scientists have
recently found that the genetic diversity of
species within a habitat has a significant affect
how ecosystems function. "It is not just the
quantity of species diversity that matters, it is
also the quality of genetic diversity," said lead
author Mike Madritch, an ecology doctoral
student at UGA. Madritch studied two nutrient
cycles
(carbon
and
nitrogen)
during
decomposition of leaf litter and found a
significant link between the outputs of the
nutrient cycle and the genetic variation of the
leaves.
T
The study was conducted on a Turkey Oak
sandhills community in Aiken, South Carolina,
where researches analysed the decomposition
of nine different single-tree litter treatments
and one mixed treatment that contained litter
from all nine trees of the same species. What
was discovered was that the nutrient cycles
were negatively affected by the lack of genetic
diversity. They found a big difference in the
amount of carbon and nitrogen released based
upon which batch the leaf litter came from
(genetically diverse or low genetic diversity).
"Diversity matters," said Madritch. "Our study
shows that bringing a species population back
from the brink of extinction to its original levels
would not have the same effect on the
environment as if the species never faced
being endangered in the first place. When you
build back from an endangered population,
you necessarily are building from a limited
gene pool that is you only build back up from
one genetic variety. We found that the variety
in the genetic make-up matters to the system."
The researchers found not only that a
reduction in genetic biodiversity affects the
way an ecosystem functions, but they also
found that a loss in genetic diversity reduces
the predictability of how an ecosystem will
work.
Single-tree litter treatments did not always
yield less carbon and nitrogen than the mixed
treatment.
Sometimes
the
single-tree
treatments produced more nutrients and
sometimes they produced less, but the
researchers say the nutrients were always
significantly different than the mixed-litter
treatment.
"The alarming part of this discovery is that you
cannot predict the effect that reduced genetic
biodiversity will have on an ecosystem," said
Hunter. "Therefore, deforestation is like
playing Russian roulette with our future. We
know that relying upon fewer trees to recycle
nutrients will make a difference, but we don't
know what kind of difference. It's a chance I
don't think is worth taking."
Madritch and Hunter are convinced that
conserving genetic diversity within a species is
as important as conserving species diversity
for maintaining ecosystem functions. "This
research is especially important in the current
mass extinction period," said Hunter. "Plants
capture the energy that drives the planet. By
continuing to destroy plant habitats, we reduce
the available gene pool. In the end it could
harm the biggest ecosystem of all: planet
Earth."
1) What ecosystem function was adversely
affected by the lack of genetic diversity in
Turkey Oak communities?
2) Why would bringing a species back from
being endangered have an affect on
genetic diversity?
3) What did the researches find out about
the nutrient outputs in the leaf litter in
Turkey Oak when it was from only one
genetic variety?
4) What did the researches find out about
the nutrient outputs in the leaf litter in
Turkey Oak when it was sourced from a
genetically diverse sample?
5) What was the alarming part of this
research?
6) What is a serious concern of the
researches if genetic diversity is not
maintained?
41
3.2
UTILITY VALUES (USEFUL)
Ecosystems need to be managed and protected because they have
UTILITY VALUE as they provide many products and services for
humans that are USEFUL.
Products:

According to Nature Magazine , in 1998 the estimated total
value of the goods and services provided by the Earth’s
ecosystems is $33 trillion (US)
Ingredient
Source
Product
Tyres, toys, industrial
raw materials
Wicker baskets,
furniture
Rubber
Rubber Tree
Rattan
Palm Leaves
Cacao Beans
Sth. American Tree
Chocolate, cocoa
Kola Nuts
Seed of a kola tree
Soft drinks
Palm Oils
Palm Hearts
Cooking Oil
Brazil Nuts
Seed from the Brazil Nut
Tree
Sapayul Oil
Sapote Plant
Chicle
Spodilla Tree
Cereals, snack foods
and beauty products
Shampoo and
Conditioner
Base of Chewing
Gum
42
Medicines
 60% of Modern Medicines come from natural ecosystems. It is
estimated that US $40 billion is made from medicines that are
sourced from ecosystems in their natural state. There are many
types of medicines developed from ecosystems:
Medicine
Source
treatment
Cinchona
Cinchona plant
Reduces high fever
Physostigmine
African Calabar Bean
Glaucoma
Quinine
Bark of Rubiaceae Tree
Malaria
Rosy
Perwinkle
Tropical Forest Plant
Hodgkin’s Disease
and Cancer
Services:

Ecosystems provide many human services. One service an
ecosystem provides is tourism.

For example the industries involved in the Great Barrier Reef
contributed in the 2004-2005 financial year:

$5.8 billion to the Australian economy- $5.1 billion
was from tourism alone

And employed about 63,000 people (the majority,
54,000 in tourism).
source: Media Release Australian Minister for the Environment and Heritage 6 September 2005
(http://www.deh.gov.au/minister/env/2005/mr06sep05.html) downloaded 19/11/2006
43
3.3
INTRINSIC VALUES (INTERNAL)

Ecosystems are valued because of their very existence

Ecosystems have the right to exist regardless of their utility
value (money is not the deciding factor)

Many ecosystems provide inspiration, aesthetic and spiritual
needs for people; and then there is the philosophical standpoint
which believes humans do not have the right to determine if an
ecosystem survives or not.

Ecosystems are very significant in many indigenous peoples
spirituality. Just consider Aboriginal peoples inextricable link to
the land and how the ecosystem in which they live is an
important part of their spirituality.

Aesthetic (beauty) qualities of ecosystems are also valued for
their recreational potential i.e. Bushwalking, photography, wild
life watching etc.

From a religious point of view ecosystems should be looked
after as they form a connection to the divine. For example, the
Catholic Church’s position on the Environment. It demonstrates
the Intrinsic values of why we should protect ecosystems:
"Each of the various creatures, willed in its own being, reflects in
its own way a ray of God's infinite wisdom and goodness. Man
must therefore respect the particular goodness of every creature,
to avoid any disordered use of things which would be in contempt
of the Creator and would bring disastrous consequences for
human beings and their environment" (Catechism of the Catholic
Church, 399)
44
3.4
HERITAGE VALUES
 Ecosystems should be protected and managed because they
have heritage value.

The Australian Heritage Commission views natural heritage as:
“…those places, being components of the natural
environment of Australia... that have aesthetic,
historic, scientific or social significance or other
special value for future generations, as well as the
present community”
 For many people ecosystems are clear links to their past (their
heritage) and they want to ensure future generations have
access to it. This is very true for Australian Aboriginals. By
destroying ecosystems peoples heritage are lost.
 Further, ecosystems can give a distinct identity for
nations. Consider if the majority of the Australian Bush
was taken away, historically it has played a key role in
the Australian identity.
 In terms of education and scientific research it is
important that we have representative ecosystems
survive so that they can be learnt about first hand rather
than in history books.
45
3.5
The Need to allow Natural Change to Proceed
Ecosystems are valuable because they are needed to allow natural changes to proceed. In
other words, we need to let nature do what nature does best in order for our planet to survive.
One concept that helps understand this point is ECOSERVICES.
Ecoservices are the many invaluable services that ecosystems provide so that the Earth
can function. These include pest and disease control, pollination, recycling of materials, flood
control and purification services. These ecoservices provide valuable economic benefits to
people too. If these ecoservices are disrupted there are severe impacts, not only on the
functioning of the ecosystem, but also on human welfare.
Some examples of Ecoservices:

Pollination-wild animals such as bees, possums, bats and insects pollinate much of
the world's plants, including agricultural crops. Without pollination, most plants would not
reproduce and ecosystems would collapse.

Insect control-birds, frogs and bats eat large numbers of insects. If these predators
are reduced, insect plagues can result. To control the plagues, large amounts of insecticide
then have to be used. This results in pollution in the environment.

Flood control-wetlands and floodplains function to control floods. If wetlands are filled
in or modified, their effectiveness is reduced. Expensive flood mitigation schemes are then
required to reduce the economic damage from flooding.

Storm protection-coastal sand dunes act to protect ecosystems against storm
damage. The dunes provide a reservoir of sand, which is moved offshore to absorb the
storm waves, when the storm subsides; the waves and wind rebuild the dunes. If human
development occurs in the dune zone, the balance is upset and the cost of beach protection
can be enormous.

Soil erosion control and water purification -natural catchment areas function to
filter incoming precipitation through the soil and rocks. Streams and rivers in an undisturbed
catchment area are clean and pure. When vegetation is removed, runoff over the surface
causes erosion and sedimentation. Valuable topsoil that has taken thousands of years to
form is lost. Streams and rivers are polluted with sedimentation. This can require expensive
water treatment so that the water is suitable for drinking by humans.

Pest control-properly functioning natural ecosystems have a way of rebalancing
population explosions. Biological control through natural predators and climatic cycles keep
most explosions of pests in check. When ecosystems are changed by human actions,
imbalances occur and populations of pests may explode and cause damage to crops and
livestock. Ecosystems also provide many sources of natural pest control chemicals.
Chemicals from the neem tree (Azadirachta indica), for example, originating in the Indian
subcontinent, are used as a natural insecticide with no harmful environmental effects.

Climate control-the aquatic ecosystems, especially the oceans, help regulate the
world's climate. Oceans are massive carbon sinks, absorbing more carbon in their
sediments and hard, organically produced shells and corals than terrestrial ecosystems.

Oxygen production-the forest ecosystems of the planet generate oxygen and have
been called the lungs of the Earth. Deforestation is occurring at a rapid rate and many
countries now only have a fraction of their area covered with forests compared with a
century ago.

Recycling of materials-wetlands filter wastewater to produce clean water. The
vegetation traps the pollutants and converts it into harmless chemicals.
Adapted from: Owens, P. et al (2003) Macquarie Revision Guides HSC Geography, Macmillian: Sth Yarra. pp. 31-33
46
The Need to allow natural change to proceed
Ecoservices
47
Evaluation of Traditional and Contemporary
Management Strategies
 For this dot point you need to be able to evaluate the
4.0
management strategies. To do this effectively you need to do
TWO things:
o Firstly, you need to be able to identify what
management philosophy is being used.
o Secondly, you need to see if it fits the criteria of
Ecological Sustainable Development (ESD)
Management Philosophies
There are four broad approaches to ecosystem management:

PRESERVATION refers to the protection of habitat (or of a
species) in its existing form. It often involves the prevention of
all human activities in the area being protected.

CONSERVATION, on the other hand, involves active
resource management. Conservation involves the planned
use of natural resources in an effort to minimise waste and
environmental damage.

UTILISATION involves the replacement of an ecosystem
with a human-made environment that is capable of providing
a sustainable yield. Sustainably managed commercial
agriculture is an example of utilisation.

EXPLOITATION occurs when an ecosystem's resources are
used irrespective of the ecological consequences.
Ecosystems are often destroyed, or reduced in extent, as a
result of this exploitation.)
48
Approaches to Ecosystem Management
Preservation
Conservation
Utilisation
Exploitation
How
resources are
used?
Human
Access
How
ecosystems
are treated
for resources
use
Typical
Impacts on
flora and
fauna
Which TWO approaches would be considered Ecologically Sustainable (use the criteria of ESD to
support your answer).
49
Ecological Sustainable Development Criteria
1.
Intragenerational equity:
People within the present generation have a right to
benefit equally from the utilisation of the earth's
natural resources. At a very minimum it means that all
people in the world have a right to have their basic
needs met, that is, food, clothing and shelter, a
healthy environment and the fulfilment of their cultural
and spiritual needs.
2.
Intergenerational equity (ecological justice):
The present generation should not use resources or
degrade environments in ways that leave future
generations in a worse position than the present
generation.
3.
The precautionary approach:
Where there are threats of serious or irreversible
environmental damage, lack of scientific certainty
should not be used as a reason for postponing
measures that could prevent environmental
degradation, that is, where there is doubt we should
always err on the side of caution.
4.
Maintenance of Biological Diversity:
This is the diversity of life in all its forms, levels and
combinations. Biodiversity is considered essential for
the evolution and maintenance of earth's life-support
systems, as well as having both an aesthetic and
cultural value.
50
4.1
Evaluation of Traditional Management Strategies
T
raditional
indigenous
cultures
generally have a much closer affinity
with the biophysical environment than
do contemporary industrialised societies. A
feature of this affinity is the careful way in
which they interact with their environment.
This interaction is governed by attitudes that
emphasise respect and co-existence.
burning of the bush by Australian Aboriginal
people to attract game and facilitate
movement is a particularly significant
example. It is now apparent that the sustained
burning of the Australian bush resulted in a
modification of Australia's vegetation. It may
also be true that hunting by Aboriginal people
contributed to the extinction of some larger
species of mammals. These impacts were,
however, relatively minor compared to the
widespread degradation caused by large-scale
farming, mining and industrial and urban
landuses.
Indigenous people often engage in long-term
management
practices.
Indigenous
Australians, for example, planted parts of
yams back into the holes from which they
were dug so the plants would regenerate.
They also artificially fertilised flowers,
seeded river flats to re-establish plant
populations, settled bees into tree hollows to
start new hives and dug pits, which filled with
water and provided a breeding place for frogs.
The philosophy that best reflects the
relationship that exists between indigenous
people and ecosystems is that of stewardship.
Indigenous people believe that they have a
responsibility to protect and nurture the land
for the benefit of future generations. They see
themselves as the custodians of the land.
The goals and objectives of ecosystem
management by traditional societies focus on
the collection of food and the provision of
shelter within the context of a respect for the
earth, its fragile nature and the interdependent
relationship of people and the environment.
Their aim is self-sufficiency. By taking only
what is needed, they eliminate waste.
In meeting their needs, indigenous people
often manipulate and manage ecosystems. For
example Aboriginal Australians built artificial
dykes, dug trenches, dammed rivers and used
fire-stick
burning.
Generally,
such
interventions did not diminish the resilience
of ecosystems. However, in some cases such
practices did have long-term impacts. The
While these examples highlight the ability of
indigenous people to manage specific
resources, the majority of their management
practices were directed towards the
conservation of species. Strategies included:
 restrictions on species caught • closed
seasons
 taboos
 designated areas for individuals and
groups
 leadership according to age, enabling
ecologically sound practices to be handed
down from one generation to another
 limits to population growth
 sustainable methods of hunting.
Indigenous people often have their own
working definition of ecosystem management
built into their culture through spiritual ties to
the land, daily practices, seasonal calendars,
choice of tools and weapons, artistic
interpretation and the division of labour. The
accumulated
experiences
of
human
interaction with nature is passed down from
generation to generation in laws, codes of
conduct, customs, rituals, ceremonies, stories
and teachings. The separation of many
51
traditional peoples from their land has meant
that much of this knowledge has been lost in
part, or in full. The continuation and
progression of these cultures and associated
management philosophies is dependent on the
ability of these peoples to once again use the
land.
Management units and boundaries are
determined through the creation of territories,
each with its own distinct political systems
and laws. The Australian Aboriginal people,
for example, had 600-700 distinct nations or
'tribes' before the European settlement/
invasion of 1788. These tribes were composed
of several clans, each of which was
responsible for a certain area of land. Each
clan had a link with a specific plant, animal or
natural feature with which they shared their
spirit. Each clan was charged with the
responsibility of caring for their ancestor's
spirit. This is sometimes referred to as totem.
This
heightened
the
feeling
of
interdependence with the land.
The weapons and tools used by traditional
societies are designed for great speed,
accuracy and efficiency. Aboriginal hunting
and gathering technologies differed from
region to region. In areas where resources
were scarce, difficult to find and capture, such
as in the desert, the most appropriate
technologies were those that provided hunters
and gatherers with the flexibility and mobility
to deal with their harsh and unpredictable
environment. In contrast, more elaborate
technologies were used in areas where
resources were seasonally abundant, reliable
and included species that are more difficult to
capture. In short, Aboriginal technologies
were closely related to the conditions in
which they were used and were, in many
important ways, a sophisticated expression of
Aboriginal inventiveness.
Because of the close affiliation with the land,
traditional societies are generally very
familiar with the cycles and processes of the
ecosystem in which they are living. The
differentiation of hunting, gathering, farming
and food production-along with differentiation of tools, technologies, customs and
laws-demonstrates
that
the
unique
characteristics of each environment were
recognised, and ecological constraints or
limits accepted. As a result, the plants and
animals eaten at particular times of the year,
the degree of mobility and the nature of
seasonal movements varied from region to
region.
In many traditional societies there is an
emphasis on collective effort. The hunting
and gathering of food in Australian
Aboriginal society illustrates the need to
coordinate management activities. In many
tribes, different clans came together in bands,
or communities, to live, hunt and gather food.
Net hunting, for example, would involve
hundreds of people, each with a specific task
to perform during the hunt.
Indigenous societies have an intimate
knowledge of the ecosystems in which they
live. This knowledge is passed down from
one generation to the next. The best means of
protecting and preserving this accumulated
knowledge is to allow indigenous people to
continue practising their traditional way of
life. However, this is, by and large, not
happening for a range of political reasons.
Therefore,
promoting
strategies
for
sustainable, development means more than
learning from indigenous knowledge and
culture; it involves the recognition of
indigenous rights, especially land rights.
In Australia, the Aboriginal Natural
Resources and Environment Council provides
advice to the government on land and water
management issues. This is one means by
which Aboriginal economic, social and
ecological information can be used to develop
the best form of sustainable ecosystem
management.
Source: Kleeman et al (2000) A Geography of Global Interactions 2: HSC Course,
Heinemann: Port Melbourne, pp. 48-49
52
UNDERSTANDING THE TEXT
1. Describe the nature of the relationship that indigenous people have with the
biophysical environment.
2. What are the goals and objectives of ecosystem management-in traditional
societies?
3. Outline the ways in which indigenous people manipulated and managed
ecosystems.
4. Outline the impact that the Australian Aboriginals' management practices had on
the Australian environment.
5. List the strategies used by Aboriginal people to conserve species.
6. How has the accumulated experience of indigenous peoples been passed from one
generation to the next? Why has some of this knowledge been lost? What must
occur if indigenous people are to continue practising their management
philosophy?
7. How did Aboriginal people determine ecosystem management units and
boundaries?
8. Explain how and why the technologies used by Aboriginal people varied from
region to region.
9. Why do most indigenous people emphasise collective effort?
10. Match the criteria of Ecological Sustainable Development with examples from
Traditional management approaches:
 Intragenerational Equity:
 Intergenerational Equity
 Maintain Biodiversity
 Precautionary approach
11. Is traditional management ecologically sustainable?
53
4.1
Evaluation of Contemporary Management
Strategies
There are numerous approaches contemporary managers
use to manage ecosystems at the global and national and
local scales.
 With the following management approaches cut each
out and organise them into Preservation, Conservation,
Utilisation, or Exploitation.
 Paste them in your books under each of those headings
54
Conservation Reserves
There are around 9000 conservation
reserves around the world, protecting about 6
per cent of the land area of the Earth.
Scientists believe a minimum of 10 per cent
of the land area of the Earth needs to be
protected to conserve ecosystems, their
biodiversity and integrity from human
activities. Some developing countries have
very little of their land protected. In recent
years, some developed countries created debtfor-nature swaps with developing countries.
Under this system, some of the country's debt
is written off in exchange for the
establishment of protected reserves in areas of
high conservation need..
Biosphere reserves-Global Scale
In 1981, UNESCO proposed
biosphere reserves to conserve representative
areas of each of the world's 193
biogeographical zones and to allow for the
sustainable use of natural resources. Each
reserve should be large enough to prevent
species loss and should combine conservation
and sustainable use of natural resources.
A well-designed biosphere reserve has
three zones:
At the centre is a core ecosystem area that is
minimally disturbed and where conservation
is the priority.
Surrounding the core is a buffer zone, which
is managed so that the core is protected.
Activities permitted here include research,
tourism, education and monitoring.
Outside that is another buffer zone or
transition zone where conservation is
combined with sustainable land use such as
grazing, forestry, agriculture and recreation.
More than 300 biosphere reserves
have been established in seventy-six
countries. Ecologists estimate that reserves
should be at least 10 000 square kilometres to
provide a habitat for a viable population of
large mammals. Less than 2 per cent of the
world's reserves fall into this category. Many
reserves are in mountainous areas and most
are too small to provide adequate protection.
Ecologists believe that many smaller reserves
connected via corridors provide the best
bioregional management strategy.
Nature Reserve
This type of reserve is the highest level of
protection that can be awarded in the state.
Usually a particular type of rare environment
is preserved: for example, coastal rainforest in
Broken Head Nature Reserve. Facilities are
very limited-in many, camping is prohibited
altogether.
National Park
The definition of the International Union for
the Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources (UCN) in classifying a national
park is:
... a relatively large area where one or
several ecosystems are not materially altered
by human exploitation and occupation ...and
where visitors am allowed to enter under
special conditions, for inspiration. education
cultural, and recreative purposes.
Another, simpler, definition is:
... an extensive area of public land of
nationwide significance because of its
outstanding natural features and diverse land
types, set aside to provide public enjoyment,
education, and inspiration in natural
environments.
These reserves have high conservation, scenic
and recreational values, and are usually larger
than 4000 hectares. Despite the prefix
`national', they are state-managed. The special
conditions referred to include the prohibition
of pets, firearms, and cutting equipment,
seasonal fire bans, and the requirement of
vehicle registration. Rangers have the
authority to evict people and impose penalties
on those who do not observe the regulations.
State Recreation Area (SRA)
A State Recreation Area is a smaller reserve
than a national park that often protects only a
particular feature, rather than a self-sustained
ecosystem. These are part of the reserve
system in New South Wales and are similar in
tenure to Victoria's state parks. Regulations
are less restrictive than in national parks, with
the emphasis being more towards public
recreation rather than conservation.
55
State Forest
State Forests are managed by the Forestry
Commission of New South Wales for the
purpose of timber production, which
generates about $100 million income. The
forests can either take the form of softwood
radiata pine plantations or native eucalypt
hardwoods. There are just over 3.5 million
hectares of state forest in New South Wales,
95 per cent of which is native. Recreation
activities are well-catered-for in state forestsroads are generally widespread and of better
quality than in national parks. Picnic and
camping areas are abundant in popular
regions, and restrictions are usually minimal.
Flora, Fauna, Forest Reserves
These small reserves, often found along
tourist drives in state forests and with picnic
and camping facilities, preserve particularly
sensitive or attractive areas for conservation
and recreational purposes. Primarily, they act
as a reference point against which to judge the
effects of logging elsewhere. Despite popular
belief, these reserves have full legislationbacked protection, and can only be revoked
by parliament.
Catchment Authority/Water Board
Territory
After the contamination debacle with
Sydney's drinking water in 1998, there is now
a far greater emphasis on maintaining the
purity of urban water supply catchment areas.
The states' various water utilities jointly
administer large proportions of the natural
land surrounding state capitals. In the Blue
Mountains, the construction of Warragamba
Dam in 1960 blocked the Coxs and
Wollondilly River valleys, forming a massive
stored water build-up known as Lake
Burragorang. A three-kilometre
circumference around this 7500-hectare lake
is totally prohibited to bushwalkers and
campers.
Other water authorities' regulations are more
relaxed, such as the Tasmanian HydroElectric Commission, with canoeing and
power boating permitted on stored water.
World Heritage Area
These are areas of outstanding natural and/or
cultural significance registered with
UNESCO in Paris. Australia has Kinchega
National Park as its first World Heritage
Area, although Uluru and the Great Barrier
Reef would be our most famous areas.
Tasmania has 20 per cent of its areaequivalent to 1.38 million hectares-classified
as world heritage. Land tenure is determined
by state legislation, but international
agreements and Commonwealth legislation
regulate management frameworks. A related
reservation status is the UNESCO Biosphere
Reserve, which acts as a control against
which human impact on pristine areas is
monitored and recorded. Kosciuszko National
Park in New South Wales is an example of
this type of reserve.
State Reserve
These are generally less than 4000 hectares in
size, and preserve a particular feature or site.
An example is Hastings Caves in Tasmania.
Game ReserveThese areas, such as Bruny Island Neck,
Tasmania, offer the same level of protection
as state reserves, but allow for certain species
to be hunted by permit.
Conservation Area
Such areas provide protection from the
actions of the public, but not from actions
undertaken in pursuance of a right granted
under other legislation. The level of
protection of a conservation area can be
expanded by the implementation of a
statutory management plan of the area.
Examples are the Central Plateau and Cape
Direction in Tasmania.
Protected Areas
These enjoy a similar degree of protection to
conservation areas, allowing a controlled use
of resources but reserved under the Crown
Lands Act (Tasmania) 1976. An example is
Mount Roland in northern Tasmania.
56
State Park
These are generally smaller than 4000
hectares and preserve a particular feature or
site, such as Lake Eildon in Victoria.
Recreational facilities are more common, but
are managed on the same principles as
national parks.
Coastal Park/Marine Reserve
Because of the popularity of water, these
reserves and Lakeside Reserves are managed
on a multi-utilitarian basis where the aquatic
and marine natural environment is protected
and access and facilities are provided for
public enjoyment. About 90 per cent of
Victoria's 2000-kilometre coastline is publicly
owned, of which two-thirds is managed by
Parks Victoria in over 300 reserves totalling
47 000 hectares. An example is the Phillip
Island Penguin Reserve.
Cut out the above contemporary management
strategies and categorise them by pasting
them under the headings of Preservation,
Conservation, utilisation, or exploitation
57
Evaluation of contemporary management
Complete this paragraph:
Contemporary management strategies predominantly utilise the management
approaches of ________________________ and _____________________ .
These two approaches tend to follow the principle of
__________________________________________ (ESD). Some
contemporary management strategies have a utilisation approach. One
example is ______________________. Regardless of this one example most
strategies adopted by contemporary mangers can be considered
__________________.
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Ecosystems at Risk-Coastal Sand Dunes Case Study Stockton Beach
Ecosystem Case Study
Coastal Sand Dunes- Stockton Bight
Introduction
1. What are Coastal Sand Dune ecosystems?
2. What are the natural functions of Coastal Sand Dunes?
3. Why are the Stockton Bight Sand Dunes considered an Ecosystem
at Risk?
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Ecosystems at Risk-Coastal Sand Dunes Case Study Stockton Beach
Spatial Patterns and Dimensions of the
Stockton Coastal Sand Dune Ecosystem
1.0
1. Where are Coastal Sand Dunes generally found around the world?
1.1 Location
2. Sketch a MAP showing the location of the Stockton Bight Coastal Sand
Dune Ecosystem.
3. What is the Absolute location of the Stockton Bight Coastal Sand
Dunes?
4. What is the relative location of the Stockton Bight Coastal Sand Dunes?
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Ecosystems at Risk-Coastal Sand Dunes Case Study Stockton Beach
1.2 Extent
5. Outline the size and shape of the Stockton Bight Coastal Sand Dunes
1.3 Altitude
6. What are the different heights along the Stockton Bight Coastal Sand
Dunes?
1.4 Continuity
7. How deep do the Stockton Bight Coastal Sand Dunes go?
8. How old is the current layer of the Stockton Bight Coastal Sand Dunes?
From which geological period do they stem from?
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Ecosystems at Risk-Coastal Sand Dunes Case Study Stockton Beach
2.0
Biophysical Interactions in the Functioning of the
Stockton Bight Coastal Sand Dune Ecosystem
The ACCRETION CYCLE demonstrates how the four biophysical spheres interact on Coastal
Sand Dunes. Understanding how the accretion cycle works and how each sphere plays a role in it
is important in understanding the functioning on Coastal Sand Dunes.
1. Describe the ACCRETION CYCLE.
2. Complete the ACCRETION CYCLE diagram below.
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Ecosystems at Risk-Coastal Sand Dunes Case Study Stockton Beach
2.1
Geomorphological Processes
1. What does the term GEOMORPHOLIGICAL mean?
2. Draw a cross section of a typical coastal dune ecosystem labelling the
geomorphological zones.
3. What are the main Geomorphological processes that occur on Coastal
Sand Dunes?
4. Why is mechanical weathering the main type of weathering that occurs
on sand dunes?
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Ecosystems at Risk-Coastal Sand Dunes Case Study Stockton Beach
5. Describe the different types of mechanical weathering that occur in the
formation and development of coastal sand dunes.
6. Identify and describe the two types of erosion that occur on coastal
sand dunes.
i)
ii)
7. Where does most of the sediment come from for the Stockton Sand
Dunes? How does it get there?
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Ecosystems at Risk-Coastal Sand Dunes Case Study Stockton Beach
8. Explain how the geomorphological processes identified above play a
role in the accretion cycle.
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Ecosystems at Risk-Coastal Sand Dunes Case Study Stockton Beach
2.2
Hydrological Processes
1. What does the term hydrological mean?
2. What is the main way the hydrosphere impacts on Coastal Dunes?
3. Identify and explain how the four Hydrological flows operate in
Coastal Sand Dune Ecosystems and their role in the accretion cycle.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
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Ecosystems at Risk-Coastal Sand Dunes Case Study Stockton Beach
2.3
Dynamics of Weather and Climate
1. Explain why temperate climates are ideal for the formation of Sand Dunes?
2. Why is Stockton Bight an ideal location for Coastal Sand Dunes?
3. What is the term Aeolian a fancy word for?
4. Identify and explain the 3 ways that wind helps in the accretion cycle.
5. Draw a diagram that shows Aeolian transport.
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Ecosystems at Risk-Coastal Sand Dunes Case Study Stockton Beach
6. Why is temperature crucial in the functioning of Coastal Sand Dunes?
7. How does Stockton’s climate make it an ideal place for a Coastal Sand
Dune ecosystem?
8. How does precipitation influence the functioning of Coastal Sand
Dunes?
9. What is the precipitation like on the Stockton Bight? How does this
affect the Dune ecosystem?
10. Explain how the dynamics of weather and climate identified above
play a role in the accretion cycle?
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Ecosystems at Risk-Coastal Sand Dunes Case Study Stockton Beach
2.4
Biogeographical Processes
1. What do geographers mean when they use the term succession?
2. Draw an annotated diagram showing the process of succession on
coastal sand dunes. Ensure to label the colonising vegetation.
Vegetation Succession and colonisation
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Ecosystems at Risk-Coastal Sand Dunes Case Study Stockton Beach
3. Label the Geomorphological zones and the relevant vegetation zones.
4. Illustrate how the dune system acts as a wind barrier.
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Ecosystems at Risk-Coastal Sand Dunes Case Study Stockton Beach
5. Explain how the biosphere (in particular the flora) plays a role in the
accretion cycle?
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Ecosystems at Risk-Coastal Sand Dunes Case Study Stockton Beach
2.4
Adjustments in response to natural stress
1. Name the TWO types of natural stress that impact predominantly on Coastal Sand Dunes?
2. Describe and explain the two ways in which STORM Damage impacts Coastal Sand Dunes.
3. Identify and describe TWO storms that have impacted the Stockton Bight Sand Dunes and
describe the impacts on the sand dunes.
4. How do coastal sand dunes adjust to the natural stresses of storm damage?
5. What part of coastal sand dunes does the natural stress of bushfires impact on?
Identify and describe how Coastal sand dunes have adjusted to this natural stress.
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Ecosystems at Risk-Coastal Sand Dunes Case Study Stockton Beach
3.0
The Nature and Rate of Change in Coastal Sand Dunes
1. What are the two categories of change that occur in most ecosystems?
2. In the spaces provided, identify and describe the three natural changes on
Coastal Dune Systems and outline the rate of change for each.
Type of Natural
Change
Description of the Nature of Change
Rate of Change
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Ecosystems at Risk-Coastal Sand Dunes Case Study Stockton Beach
3. In what ways have humans impacted on the nature and rate of change on
coastal sand dunes?
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Ecosystems at Risk-Coastal Sand Dunes Case Study Stockton Beach
4.0
Human Impacts on Coastal Sand Dunes
1. What part of Sand Dunes do humans negatively impact the most?
2. How have humans positively impacted on Coastal Sand Dunes?
3.
Identify and outline the 5 negative Human Impacts that affect Coastal Dune
Systems?
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
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Ecosystems at Risk-Coastal Sand Dunes Case Study Stockton Beach
(iv)
(v)
4. What is Bitou Bush?
5. Why was Bitou Bush introduced to Australia?
6. Where was Bitou Bush introduced in Australia?
7. Describe the characteristics of Bitou Bush (perennial means all year round).
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Ecosystems at Risk-Coastal Sand Dunes Case Study Stockton Beach
8. Why is Bitou Bush a Problem on Dune Systems?
9. What are some impacts of Bitou Bush?
10. How does Bitou Bush affect Biodiversity?
11. What type of vegetation communities has been replaced by Bitou Bush in
Port Stephens?
12. Describe the impacts that rabbits have on dunes.
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Ecosystems at Risk-Coastal Sand Dunes Case Study Stockton Beach
5.0
Management Practices
1. Under each heading give examples of why it is important to manage and
protect Coastal Sand Dunes?
(i) Maintenance of genetic diversity
(ii) Utility Values
(iii) Intrinsic Values
(iv) Heritage Values
(v) Need to allow natural change to proceed
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Ecosystems at Risk-Coastal Sand Dunes Case Study Stockton Beach
5.1
Traditional Management Practices
2.
What Aboriginal Nation occupied the Stockton Sand Dunes?
3.
Name ONE clan of the Aboriginal nation that managed the Stockton
Bight Sand Dunes
4.
What made the Aboriginals from the Port Stephens area different to
many other Aboriginals?
5. Why did/do Aboriginals Value Coastal Sand Dune Ecosystems?
Intrinsic Values
Utility Values
Heritage Values
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Ecosystems at Risk-Coastal Sand Dunes Case Study Stockton Beach
6. Identify and describe the Traditional Management Strategies on the Coastal Sand
Dunes
Strategy 1
Strategy 2
Strategy 3
Strategy 4
Strategy 5
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Ecosystems at Risk-Coastal Sand Dunes Case Study Stockton Beach
6. How did Aboriginal People Manage Coastal Dune Ecosystems?
Score the strategy in terms of ESD.
Evaluation
Traditional
Management Strategies
Give a score from 1 to 5 for each management strategy
where 1 is no consideration to 5 a lot of consideration
Intrageneration
al city (fair use
within)
Intergeneration
al equity
(saving for the
future)
Divide the sum total of scores by the amount of strategies evaluated.
16-20=Very Ecological Sustainable Approach
12-15 =Some consideration to ESD given
4-11 = Not Sustainable
Maintain
Biodiversity
Precautionary
Approach
Score
/20
Sum
Total
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Ecosystems at Risk-Coastal Sand Dunes Case Study Stockton Beach
5.2
Contemporary Management Practices
7. Complete this table
Approach
Strategy
How Used
Why Used
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Ecosystems at Risk-Coastal Sand Dunes Case Study Stockton Beach
Biological Control of Bitou Bush
As mentioned earlier, bitou bush is a very difficult weed to control. In Australia there are no native animals or
insects that eat the plant. This has allowed it to spread rapidly. Scientists at CSIRO have been 'investigating
ways to control the weed without the use of chemicals or other costly solutions, such as pulling out by hand.
Scientists have discovered two promising biological controls that attack bitou bush without apparent harm to
native plants. A particular species of fungi and a moth have been identified in tests as being likely candidates for
bitou bush control.
The fungus, a native of Australia, has been successful in killing the bush within 14 days and seems to have little
impact on the native species that grow in the coastal dunes. Meanwhile, separate tests have been conducted
into a little known and unnamed species of tortix moth. The caterpillar of the moth, a native of South Africa, can
completely defoliate the bush and appears only to eat bitou bush.
8. Which weed removal strategy appeals to you? Why?
9. Which of the philosophical approaches of Protection, Conservation, Utilisation, and
Exploitation are relevant to the contemporary management of Coastal Sand Dune
Ecosystems? Justify.
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Ecosystems at Risk-Coastal Sand Dunes Case Study Stockton Beach
10. Evaluate the Contemporary Management Strategies on Coastal Dune
Ecosystems?
Score the strategy in terms of ESD.
Evaluation
Contemporary
Management Strategies
Give a score from 1 to 5 for each management strategy
where 1 is no consideration to 5 a lot of consideration
Intrageneration
al city (fair use
within)
Intergeneration
al equity
(saving for the
future)
Divide the sum total of scores by the amount of strategies evaluated.
16-20=Very Ecological Sustainable Approach
12-15 =Some consideration to ESD given
4-11 = Not Sustainable
Maintain
Biodiversity
Precautionary
Approach
Score
/20
Sum
Total
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Ecosystems at Risk-Coastal Sand Dunes Case Study Stockton Beach
Ecological Sustainable Development Criteria
11.
Intragenerational equity: People within the present
generation have a right to benefit equally from the
utilisation of the earth's natural resources. At a very
minimum it means that all people in the world have a right
to have their basic needs met, that is, food, clothing and
shelter, a healthy environment and the fulfilment of their
cultural and spiritual needs.
12.
Intergenerational equity (ecological justice): The
present generation should not use resources or degrade
environments in ways that leave future generations in a
worse position than the present generation.
13.
The precautionary approach: Where there are
threats of serious or irreversible environmental damage,
lack of scientific certainty should not be used as a reason
for postponing measures that could prevent environmental degradation, that is, where there is doubt we
should always err on the side of caution.
14.
Maintenance of Biological Diversity: This is the
diversity of life in all its forms, levels and combinations.
Biodiversity is considered essential for the evolution and
maintenance of earth's life-support systems, as well as
having both an aesthetic and cultural value.
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Ecosystems at Risk Case Study - Coral Reefs GBR
Ecosystems at Risk
Case Study TWO
Coral Reef Ecosystems- The Great Barrier Reef
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Ecosystems at Risk Case Study - Coral Reefs GBR
Introduction
1. What is a reef?
2. What is a coral reef?
3. What proportion of the ocean floor do coral reefs cover?
4. List the reasons why coral reefs are important ecosystems?
5. Why are Coral Reefs considered ecosystems at risk?
6. Who named the Great Barrier Reef and when? Who was this person?
7. Why is the name given to the Great Barrier Reef misleading?
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Ecosystems at Risk Case Study - Coral Reefs GBR
Spatial Patterns and Dimensions of the Great Barrier Reef:
location, altitude, latitude, size, shape and continuity
Location
1.0
1. Where are coral reefs mostly found around the world? Why?
2. What is the RELATIVE LOCATION of The Great Barrier
Reef?
3. What is the ABSOLUTE LOCATION (latitudes) of The
Great Barrier Reef?
4. Draw a sketch map showing the location of the Great Barrier Reef.
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Ecosystems at Risk Case Study - Coral Reefs GBR
Size
5. How many reefs make up The Great Barrier Reef?
6. What is the size of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park?
Shape
7. Describe the shape of the reef travelling North to South of the Marine Park.
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Ecosystems at Risk Case Study - Coral Reefs GBR
8. How old is The Great Barrier Reef as we know it now?
9. Why is the current form of The Great Barrier Reef this old?
10. How long ago did The Great Barrier Reef actually start forming?
11. Why did The Great Barrier Reef start to form?
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Ecosystems at Risk Case Study - Coral Reefs GBR
2.0
Biophysical Interactions
1. What is CORAL?
2. Identify and briefly describe the different types of reefs.
a.
b.
c.
d.
3. Biophysical Interactions- Outline the Optimal Conditions For Coral Growth.
i
ii
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Ecosystems at Risk Case Study - Coral Reefs GBR
iii
iv
v
vi
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Ecosystems at Risk Case Study - Coral Reefs GBR
2.1
Geomorphological Processes
1. The term geomorphological is a fancy way of saying what?
Earth Movements
2. What is SUBSIDENCE and how many times has it occurred in The Great Barrier
Reef?.
3. Explain HYDRO-ISOSTASY.
4. How does subsidence and hydro-isostasy contribute to the OPTIMAL
CONDITIONS FOR CORAL GROWTH?
5. Explain how RIFTING has had an affect on The Great Barrier Reef?
6. What is continental drift and how has this contributed to the OPTIMAL
CONDITIONS FOR CORAL GROWTH on The Great Barrier Reef?
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Ecosystems at Risk Case Study - Coral Reefs GBR
Weathering and Erosion
7. Explain why chemical weathering and erosion would be the predominant
denudation process on the GBR?
8. How does chemical weathering and erosion occur on the GBR?
9. Identify and explain two types of mechanical weathering that occurs on the
GBR.
i
ii
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Ecosystems at Risk Case Study - Coral Reefs GBR
2.2
Hydrological Processes
The term hydrological is a fancy way of saying what?
Explain how the flow of water in the form of waves plays an
important role on Coral Reefs?
Explain how the flow of water in the form of currents plays an
important role on Coral Reefs?
Name and describe the two currents that occur on the Great Barrier Reef?
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Ecosystems at Risk Case Study - Coral Reefs GBR
2.3 The Dynamics of Weather and Climate
How does the climatic factor of temperature play and important role in Coral Reefs?
Why is the location of the GBR crucial in terms of temperature?
Identify and explain the two ways in which precipitation has an impact on the GBR?
What roles does wind play on coral reefs?
How do tropical cyclones affect Coral Reefs?
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Ecosystems at Risk Case Study - Coral Reefs GBR
2.4
Biogeographical Processes:
Invasion, Succession, and Resilience.
What do you think the term invasion means?
Identify one organism that has invaded coral reefs.
Describe what the organism does and describe its impact on coral reefs.
What does the term succession mean?
Identify the two types of succession that occurs in the Great
Barrier Reef.
1.
2.
Describe coral spawning and explain what role it plays in coral succession?
What does the term resilience mean?
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Ecosystems at Risk Case Study - Coral Reefs GBR
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Ecosystems at Risk Case Study - Coral Reefs GBR
Why is the Great Barrier Reef considered resilient?
In contrast, why can it also be said that the Great Barrier
Reef is vulnerable? (hint: elasticity)
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Ecosystems at Risk Case Study - Coral Reefs GBR
3.0
The nature and rate of change that affects the Great Barrier
Reef ecosystem functioning
Nature of Change
Rate of Change
Impact of
Sea Levels
on The
Great
Barrier
Reef
Crown-ofthorns
Starfish
Infestations
Coral
Bleaching
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Ecosystems at Risk Case Study - Coral Reefs GBR
4.0 Human Impacts on the Great Barrier Reef
Human Impacts
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Ecosystems at Risk Case Study - Coral Reefs GBR
5.0
Management of the Great Barrier Reef Ecosystem
1. What are some INTRINSIC VALUES for managing and protecting the Great Barrier Reef?
2. What are some UTILITY VALUES for managing and protecting the Great Barrier Reef?
3. What are some HERITAGE VALUES for managing and protecting the Great Barrier Reef?
4. Why do we NEED TO ALLOW NATURAL CHANGE TO PROCEED in the Great Barrier Reef?
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Ecosystems at Risk Case Study - Coral Reefs GBR
5.1 Traditional Management Approach to the Great Barrier Reef
1. List a number of reasons why Aboriginals value the Great Barrier Reef?
2. What approach did the Aboriginals take in managing the
GBR?
3. Why did they adopt this approach?
4. What are some specific examples of how Aboriginals
managed the Great Barrier Reef?
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Ecosystems at Risk Case Study - Coral Reefs GBR
5. How important are the Traditional Management
strategies in modern management of the reef?
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Ecosystems at Risk Case Study - Coral Reefs GBR
5.2 Contemporary Management Approach
1.
Why don’t contemporary mangers adopt a total preservation approach to the management of the Great Barrier Reef?
2. List the factors that have influenced contemporary management practices?
3. What organisation is responsible for the management of the Great Barrier Reef
and how did it get this responsibility?
4. What are the guiding principals that determine the management strategies
adopted by the organisation identified above?
5. What is the ONE management tool that contemporary mangers use to mange
and protect the Great Barrier Reef?
6. Why was this method adopted?
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Ecosystems at Risk Case Study - Coral Reefs GBR
7. How is this method implemented?
8. Draw a map that locates and names the five Management Sections
9. How are the detailed maps used?
10. How are the Activity Guides used?
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Ecosystems at Risk Case Study - Coral Reefs GBR
11. Complete the table below on the Activity Guide
Sub-zone
Description
Activities allowed
How often does this
zone appear in all
the maps?
General Use Zone
Habitat Protection Zone
Conservation Park Zone
Buffer Zone
Scientific Research
Zone
Marine National Park
Zone
Preservation Zone
12. What is the predominant zoning classification along the GBR?
13. What Zoning classification is not often used?
14. What is one obvious problem about zoning as a management tool? (hint: size)
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Ecosystems at Risk Case Study - Coral Reefs GBR
15. What is the predominant philosophical approach used for managing the Great
Barrier Reef -Preservation? Conservation? Utilization? Exploitation? Justify
your response.
16.
What are some of the main concerns affecting the Great Barrier Reef?
Hint Refer
back to Nature of Change and Human Impacts dot points.
17. How do the current management practices effectively address these
concerns?
18. What issue/s do you think the Great Barrier Reef managers are not adequately
addressing? Can you suggest a possible area of focus?
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Ecosystems at Risk Case Study - Coral Reefs GBR
19. Evaluate the effectiveness of the management strategies used on the Great
Barrier Reef in terms of Ecological Sustainable Development (ESD).
Evaluation
Management
Strategies/tools
Give a score from 1 to 5 for each management strategy
where 1 is no consideration to 5 a lot of consideration
Intrageneration
al equity (fair
use within)
Intergeneration
al equity
(saving for the
future)
Maintain
Biodiversity
Precautionary
Approach
Score
/2
0
Traditional
Management
Contemporary
Management
Divide the sum total of scores by the amount of strategies evaluated.
16-20=Very Ecological Sustainable Approach
12-15 =Some consideration to ESD given
4-11 = Not Sustainable
Sum
Total
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Ecosystems at Risk Case Study - Coral Reefs GBR
Case Study 2:
Alpine Ecosystems;
Australian Alpine Ecosystems- Mt Koscisuzko
Alpine Ecosystems- An ecosystem at risk
Alpine ecosystems are extremely vulnerable to future climate
changes. This is due to the small areas that they cover, high degree
of sensitivity, seasonal snow cover and depth, and high diversity of
flora and fauna, of which many are already threatened (Pittock 2003).
By 2030 it is predicted that Alpine regions will experience an 18-66%
reduction in snow cover, and a 39-96% reduction by 2070. Such
outcomes will have a seriously adverse impact on Alpine regions, and
will greatly increase the risk of fire in sensitive areas previously
devoid of fire (Pittock 2003). Overall, with decreased snow and
rainfall and increased temperatures, there will be little opportunity for
Alpine ecosystems to adapt to climate changes.”
Source: Climate Change and Water in Australia,(n.d) Water for the Environment http://www.cana.net.au/water/environment/index.html
accessed 23/04/2008
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Ecosystems at Risk Case Study - Coral Reefs GBR
1.0 Spatial Patterns and Dimensions of Alpine Ecosystems
1.1 Location and Latitudes of Alpine Ecosystems
The term 'alpine' refers to those areas above the climatic limit of trees, (above the tree line) but
still have some vegetation, before the zone of permanent snow cover. The treeline occurs
where the mean temperature of the warmest month is about 100C for at least 100 days
straight. It is thought that when the midsummer temperature is less than this, the growing
season is too short to allow trees to produce enough food through photosynthesis to support
a large trunk as well as leaves and branches.
1.1.1 Location and Latitude of Global Alpine Ecosystems.
Alpine Ecosystems are generally located in Mountain Areas of the world. The world map
shows that mountain areas and as such alpine ecosystems can occur at many different
latitudes, from the equator to areas in the Arctic Circle.
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Ecosystems at Risk Case Study - Coral Reefs GBR
1.1.2 Location
Ecosystems
and
Latitude
of
Australian
Alpine
Australia is generally described as a dry and flat continent. As such the conditions
for an Alpine Ecosystem to flourish are found in the higher latitudes (35.5° S to 43°
S latitudes.) and where the highest mountains are found. This is on the East coast
of Australia in the NSW and Victorian Alps and small areas in Tasmania.
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Ecosystems at Risk Case Study - Coral Reefs GBR
1.2 Altitude
Treelines can occur over a great range of altitudes. The treeline
decreases approximately 110 metres in altitude for each
additional one degree of latitude from the equator. In the New
Guinea Highlands, latitude 60 S (near the equator), the treeline
occurs at approximately 3 700 metres in altitude. In New South
Wales at latitude 360 S it occurs at approximately 1800 metres.
The photo of the Thredbo valley shows three vegetation zones,
montane of mixed eucalypts below approximate 1350 metres,
subalpine of just snow gum trees between about 1350 and 1800
metres and alpine, above the treeline at approximately 1800
metres.
1.3 Size and Shape
In Australia the sub-alpine (snow
covered in winter) and alpine
areas occupy about 11 200 km2
but the truly alpine area, above
the treeline, covers only 250 km2
or 0.003% of Australia if which a
large proportion is located on the
Kosciuszko Plateau in the
Kosciuszko National Park (.
1.4 Continuity
Uplift of the Australian Alps
occurred many millions of years
ago, making this region very old
compared to the mostly ‘younger’
mountain ranges in other parts of
the world. Younger Alps in other
countries that appear tall, steep and
sharply defined may be still
growing. The upland area of the
Australian Alps is underlain by
marine
sediments
deposited
between 860 million years ago
(Cambrian Period) and 400 million
years ago (Devonian Period) when south-eastern Australia was inundated by the sea. From 600
million years ago these sedimentary rocks have been intruded by granites, overlain by lava
flows and folded and upl8.
The current Alpine Ecosystem of the Kosciuszko Alpine Area has been around since the last ice
age (10,000 -12,000 years ago) where it used to be a glacial environment but now it is a
periglacial environment (freeze/thaw).
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2.0 Biophysical Interactions
2.1 Dynamics of Weather and Climate
2.1.1 Climate
The climate of the Kosciuszko Alpine Area low temperature with an average mid summer
temperature often less than 10º Celsius and the average midwinter temperature is far below 0º
Celsius. It also experiences High Precipitation with an average annual rainfall of 2800-3600mm
(mainly as snow) It is the low temperature that has made this area an Alpine area.
Station: CHARLOTTE PASS (KOSCIUSKO CHALET) Latitude (deg S): -36.4337; Longitude (deg E): 148.3327; Alt:1735m
Element
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Mean max. temp. deg C
17.1
17.2
14.5
10.3
6.6
3.2
1.9
2.5
4.7
8.7
12.1
15.3
Mean min. temp. deg C
5
4.9
2.6
-0.3
-2.7
-5.3
-6.8
-5.8
-3.6
-0.5
1.7
3.7
Mean rainfall - mm
136.7
132.2
148.5
174.2
204.2
206.5
201.3
218.4
212.2
252.1
205
161.2
The area experiences Low Temperature because less sunlight (INSOLATION) reaches the area
and because of its Altitude (height above sea
level) makes an area cooler. Less sunlight
reaches the area because of its Latitude. The
further away (north or south) you travel away
from the equator, the cooler it gets because
less INSOLATION hits the earth’s surface.
This is because of the ANGLE OF
INCIDENCE. Since the Earth is shaped like a
sphere the middle of it sticks out more and is
closer to the sun whereas, the ends are
tucked in and further away from the sun. As
a result the INSOLATION has to travel
through the atmosphere at an angle which is a longer distance and consequently it cools. Further,
once it does reach the Earth’s surface it is spread out also making it cooler.
Altitude (m)
As there is an increase in altitude the lower the temperature gets. Thus, there is a relation between
altitude and temperature. This is due to a phenomenon called the ENVIRONMENTAL LAPSE RATE.
(ELR). According to ELR, temperature
Relationship Between Altitude and Temperature
drops an average 6.5º Celsius for every
(Location SE NSW Australia)
1000m of altitude. The Kosciuszko area is
the highest in Australia. Therefore, it
2500
experiences cool temperatures because of
2000
1500
its height and the influence of ELR.
1000
500
0
Precipitation is high in the area because of
moist air cells and orographic uplift. There
-2
0
2
4
6
8
Average Annual Min Temperature Degrees Celcius
are a number of types of air cells. Some
cells of air are cool and are full of
moisture, some are dry and hot, and some are moist and hot. Air cells that originate from the ocean
are often moist whereas air cells that originate over continents (large land masses) are often dry.
The air cell that impacts the Kosciuszko Alpine Area is known as the
Southern Maritime Air Mass. (It’s also known as a polar air cell). It
originates from the Southern Ocean near Antarctica, which makes it cool
and moist. It travels mainly from the West. Most of the rain and snow that
falls on Kosciuszko is from this air mass
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Orographic Uplift is another reason for the high precipitation. Clouds are evaporated water that
have been heated. The evaporated water reaches a certain height and cools down and forms
as clouds (Condensation). When it gets really cool they turn back into water (precipitation).
With Orographic Uplift the air cell is lifted to higher altitudes because of rising ground. As the
air cannot pass through the Earth
it is forced up and over the higher
ground (remember temperature
drops the higher you go) It is so
cool that the condensation turns
to rain and falls on the mountain.
Since the Kosciuszko Alpine Area
has a high altitude, the moist air
from the Southern Maritime air
mass from the west is forced up
over the region. The air is cooled
quickly and the moisture is
dumped onto the region
2.1.2. Weather patterns in the Australian Alpine Region
The Australian Alps experiences a midlatitude mountain climate, with no dry season and a mild
summer. Precipitation falls more often in winter and spring but does occur all year round. Cold
temperatures in winter mean that precipitation then falls as snow which covers the higher altitudes for
many months at a time. The Australian Alps experiences rain, hail, sleet, snow, frost, strong winds,
low temperatures and frequent blizzards especially during winter and spring. During summer the
occasional dry, sunny day can see daytime temperatures rising above 30°C but the nights are cool.
Persistent snow cover over the winter months makes the Australian Alps an important region for
people skiing and snowboarding. Precipitation occurs all year round but is greatest in winter and
spring. Transpiration, which is a major form of water loss in other areas, remains low all year in the
Alps because of low daytime temperatures. During winter, much water is held as snow and ice and
held back from streams until it thaws in warmer weather.
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2.2 Geomorphological Processes
The Alps are a constantly changing landscape, with climate and geological
processes perpetually at work, reshaping the terrain and impacting on soils, vegetation and wildlife.
2.2.1 Earth Movements
The upland area of the Australian Alps is underlain by marine sediments deposited between 860
million years ago (Cambrian Period) and 400 million years ago (Devonian Period) when southeastern Australia was inundated by the sea. From 600 million years ago these sedimentary rocks
have been intruded by granites, overlain by lava flows then through a process called orogenesis the
area was folded and uplifted to many times its present height. Then through denudation the area
was worn down and dissected by different forms of weathering and erosion.
2.2.2 Weathering and Erosion (Denudation)
Once the land was uplifted and exposed to the effects of weathering, the varying degrees of
resistance to erosion offered by different rock types became important. Softer sedimentary rocks
eroded far more quickly, leaving the more resistant metamorphic and igneous rocks in the highest
areas. Rivers and streams (fluvial erosion) cut down through soft, sedimentary rocks to form deep,
wide valleys and narrow gorges with spectacular waterfalls. Past Glacial erosion is restricted to the
highest elevations in New South Wales and there is no evidence of recent uplifting. The rocks that
form the surface are often flat, such as those remaining from lava flows, or they are rocks that erode
into rounded rather than sharp-edged shapes, such as granite. Rivers (fluvial erosion) has primarily
formed the landscape rather than the sharp cutting processes of uplifting and glacial erosion
characteristic of younger mountain ranges elsewhere in the world have carved deep valleys and
gorges. Glacial and periglacial erosion and deposition have left further imprints on the landscape.
Thus the main denudation processes have been:
Fluvial Erosion - Rivers and streams have cut through the less resistant rocks to form the deep wide
valleys and narrow gorges. This has been the predominant form of erosion in the area.
Aeolian Erosion - Wind has removed many of the layers of sedimentary rock to expose the harder
rocks it has also rounded and smoothed the surface.
Glacial Erosion -Evidence of Glacial Erosion is restricted to the high country of NSW. Features
such as cirque lakes and moraines were formed by glaciers. Cirques are actually formed at the
head of the glacier where it digs out a semicircular basin as it pushes down the slope (like a scoop).
Club Lake and Blue Lake are cirques. Moraines are ridges and outcrops of boulders and debris
dumped along the sides or at the end of the retreating glacier. Lake Albina, Lake Cootapatamba and
Hedley Tarn were formed by moraine deposits.
Periglacial Weathering and Erosion - Periglaciation is the effect of freeze and thawing. Various
forms of periglaicaion are evident in the Alpine Areas of Kosciuszko.
Needle ice is a common form of ground ice erosion in the alpine ecosystem. Needle ice consists of
groups of narrow ice slivers that are up to several centimeters long. They normally form in moist soils
when temperatures drop below freezing overnight. Needle ice plays an active role in loosening soil
for erosion and tends to move small rocks upward to the soil surface. On sloped surfaces, needle ice
can also enhance soil creep by moving soil particles at right angles to
the grade.
Frost creep is another form of erosion often related to the terracing
look on slopes. The process begins with the freezing of the ground
surface elevating particles at right angles to the slope. The particles are
elevated because cold temperatures causes water in between particles
to freeze and expand. In the warm season, thawing causes the ice to
convert back to liquid water and the contracting surface drops the
particles in elevation. This drop, however, is influenced by gravity
causing the particle to move slightly downslope.
Nivation is the localized form of erosion associated with isolated
patches of snow that remain through the summer
season. One weathering processes associated with
nivation is caused by Temperatures at the margins of a
snow patch fluctuate between above and below 0°
Celsius daily. As a result, water in the cracks of rocks
located by the snow changes from liquid to solid many
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Ecosystems at Risk Case Study - Coral Reefs GBR
times, quickly creating a mass of small fragments caused by little ice wedges. The freezing of the
water results in a volumetric expansion of about 9% creating a larger crack. The, repeated thawing
allows further fracturing because the liquid water is able to fill newly developed cracks.
Another common feature created by nivation is a
nivation hollow. These features have been known to develop
under snow patches in just a few seasons. The development of
the hollows requires two
ingredients: a snow patch
that returns to the same
area year after year and
a slope to allow for
erosional transport of
material out of the
developing depression. The process begins with a patch of
snow. Around the edges of this patch, physical weathering and
frost heaving begins to separate particles for erosion. Running
water then picks up the loose particles and carries them off..
As the summer season progresses, the patch of snow reduces
in size and the excavation of material continues inward. Enlargement of the hollow involves several
different mechanisms. Sometime in the following year, the boundary of the snow mound and
depression will once again be inline and frost weathering will eat away at the hollow's edge. The
edge of the hollow is also preferentially eroded because the micro-slope creates localized instabilities
and focuses the entrainment potential of flowing water.
2.2.3 Soils
The Australian Alps are ‘mountains with soil’ as distinct from many alpine ranges overseas which are
‘rock mountains’. Mountains on other continents are generally younger and steeper, and have been
more heavily glaciated, all factors that contribute to the absence of soil. In the Australian Alps, low
temperatures slow down chemical weathering of the various types of bedrock, thus slowing the
formation of soil. At the higher elevations ice crystals form inside rock cracks (nivation), speeding up
the mechanical shattering of rocks as the ice expands and opens up the cracks even more. The high
rainfall causes most of the soluble products of weathering, including minerals and plant nutrients, to
be leached or washed out of the soil and rocks thus making the soils more acidic in the Alpine
region. Humus, or dead plant and animal matter, decomposes slowly in the cold conditions of the
Australian Alps. Consequently nutrients are low in the soils at higher elevations. Bacteria and fungi,
which are the agents that break down humus, prefer lower elevations where temperatures are higher
and there are more nutrients necessary for growth. The humus therefore builds up, making the soil
highly porous, very crumbly and interspersed with varying sized rock floaters’. The high level of
humus means the soil can hold and release a large amount of water. High potential for water storage
and release are important, considering the large volumes of rain and snow falling on the Australian
Alps. The alpine soils are highly vulnerable to damage. Low temperatures, frosts and strong winds
mean that regrowth of plants, is slow. Once exposed, soils are vulnerable to the weather and more
likely to erode.
Soils of the Australian Alps are very diverse; a relatively large range of soil types is found over a
comparatively small area. Soil type varies across
the Alps and this is determined by the type of
rock underneath, the steepness of the slope and
the level of exposure to the weather. The three
main types of soils found in the Alps include:
Lithosols are shallow soils developed largely
from weathering of rock. lithosols have very low
organic content and are shallow, dry and sandy.
They are found on the high exposed ridges and
stony slopes at subalpine and alpine altitudes
and are associated with shrubby heathland,
herbfields and feldmark plant communities;
Alpine Humus soils are developed largely from
the breakdown of organic material so are rich in
ecomposing plant matter. They are found on the
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gently undulating, sheltered and welldrained slopes at subalpine and alpine altitudes. This is the most
common soil type and is associated with tussock grasslands, herbfields and Snow Gum woodlands;
Peat/Bog soils are developed under saturated conditions and are made up of decomposed and
partially decomposed plant matter.
Peats are acid, waterlogged soils with
large chunks of undecomposed plant
material and are found in the basins and
depressions of valleys. They are formed
in wet conditions where the breaking
down of dense layers of moisture-loving
plants occurs slowly and are associated
with bogs, candle heath and sedges.
2.3 Hydrological Processes
Flows
Precipitation: The predominant flow of water is in the form of precipitation. The area experiences
extensive precipitation with over 3000mm annually. This is mostly in the form of snow, rain, hail etc.
The alpine area has a very high precipitation caused by orographic uplift of moist air cells (Sothern
Maritime Air Mass) as air is forced to rise over the Kosciuszko plateau. Air forced to rise cools at a
rate of approximately 10 0 C for every 1000 m (dry adiabatic lapse rate) it rises until it becomes
saturated with water vapour and cloud droplets start to form.
Rivers and Creeks: The abundance of water entering the area and the high altitude has allowed for
an extensive river system to develop. It is the flow of water in the form of rivers that has interacted
with the lithosphere which has shaped the many gorges and valleys evident today. Some of the
major rivers are the Murray, Murrumbidgee, Thredbo, and Snowy Rivers.
Storage
Snow: Water is stored in the form of snow for 4 to 5 months of the year, with occasional snow
patches in other seasons. The cold temperature experienced in the area freezes the water to form a
snow pack. During warmer months it then flows into the extensive river sytems in the area. The cool
temperature also reduces the amount of Evapotranspiration in the area.
Soils and vegetation: The peat/ bog soils have contributed vastly to the storage capacity of the
water in the Kosciuszko Alpine Area. The water is collected during spring thaws and slowly
discharges into the extensive river and creek systems in the area. Also, vegetation such as
Sphagnum moss, which can hold over 20 times its own volume in water, also store the adundant
water that enters the ecosystem.
Glacial Lakes: Around the higher parts of the Kosciuszko Alpine Area are a number of glacial lakes
that store water. There are two types, a Cirque Lake, a ‘scoop’ in the lithosphere created by the head
of a glacier and a Morraine Lake, a natural dam created by the debris left from a retreating glacier.
2.4 Biogeographical Processes
Alpine refers to areas above
the treeline which is a
response to natural stress,
trees are unable to grow in
cold climates. However, alpine
areas are not all the same,
different areas have different
micro-climates caused by
position in the landscape and
different plants are adapted to
grow
in
different
environments.
Where
a
number of plant species grow
in the same area they are
referred to as a plant
community. The diagram on the right shows the main plant communities and where they like to grow.
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Food chains show the flow of energy from plant to
herbivore to carnivore. The more energy from the sun
converted into chemical energy by photosynthesis in
plants, the more animals that can be supported in
food chains.
In the Kosciuszko area, plants grow for only four
months of the year because of the low temperatures,
hence plant biomass is very low. This is the weight of
plant material or the amount of food available to
support the food chain. Rainforests (world average)
have
a
plant
biomass
of
45 kg/m2 and can support a lot of herbivores but
the world average for alpine areas is only
0.6 kg/m2 so there is not much food for
herbivores and even less for carnivores.
The use of biomass or energy units displayed
as a pyramid showing different trophic levels,
producer (plant), consumers (herbivores and
carnivores) allows us to compare the
productivity (how many plants and animals it
can support) of different ecosystems. The two
pyramids on the right show the comparative
sizes of tropical and alpine food pyramids.
2.4.1 Succession (Primary)
Due to the cold conditions, high soil acidity and low nutrient levels, succession in the alpine
ecosystems are generally slow. Like many other ecosystems the first colonisers are moses and
lichens. Even after human disturbances around the alpine ecosystem researches witness these first
colonisers which can tolerate complete aridity, are often the first groups of species to establish on
exposed soils and at eroded sites in extreme environments. The next colonising species are the low
lying cushion plants, small herbs and graminoids, which contribute to the accumulation of compost,
building up a rich microflora and developing humus soils. Heath communities develop and that is the
extent of the succession. The low temperatures hinder the development of trees and reduce the
numbers of herbivores and carnivores.
2.4.2 Invasion (Secondary Succession)
The extreme climate of the Alpine area has slowed the rate of invading species in the area but
human interference has led to some secondary succession. Of the plants, the most common plant to
invade disturbed sites has been the Sorrel Herb (acetosella vulgaris). In terms of animals, foxes, wild
horses, wild cats, and rats have invaded and placed stresses on many threatened species in the
area.
2.4.3 Resilience
The elasticity of alpine ecosystems is usually very slow. Recovery periods are slowed by the low
temperatures and in the Kosciuszko Alpine Area it is estimated that plants only have four months of
the year to grow. Furthermore, many of the plant and communities are very vulnerable due to the
distinct location as they have adapted to this unique environment in Australia.
2.5 Adjustments to Natural Stress
Both the flora and fauna have adapted to the extreme weather conditions of the Kosciuszko Alpine
Area.
General plant adaptations to the natural stress of cold and seasonal climate of alpine areas:
 the growing season is too short (4 months) to allow plants to make enough food by
photosynthesis to support a large, woody trunk so trees are not found where the warmest
month has an average temperature under 10 0 C
 many plants are annuals with a short life cycle of rapid growth, flowering and seed production.
They survive winter as a seed which will grow the following spring.
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



many plants have renewal buds close to the ground where they are protected from cold by
soil and plant litter
shrubs have a very slow growth rate, the stems of feldmark Epacris increase in diametre by
0.27 mm/yr.
many shrubs are dwarf with a rock clinging habit (rocks retain warmth)
although it is a cold climate, intense sunshine for short periods can cause heat stress and it is
critical to keep leaves cool. Leaves may be silver in colour, have long hairs, have a small leaf
area or have a needle shape.
General Animal Adaptations and responses to the natural stress of cold:
 Large herbivores are not present, animals such as kangaroos do not appear to be adapted to
move and feed in winter snow.
 The number of animal species decreases with altitude.
 Some small mammals such as bats, the Mountain Pygmy Possum (photo courtesy NSW
NPWS, Linda Broome) and echidnas hibernate through winter.
 Birds have seasonal migrations between the mountain tops and valleys to escape the cold
and lack of food in winter.
 Reptiles, being cold blooded, have additional problems. They are heliotherms, basking in the
sun to get warm. Only one lizard species, the Mountain Log Skink, is found over 2000 m in
altitude.
 Lizards choose a home site which allows them to burrow deep into soil to escape freezing
conditions
 Insects typically have very small wings (not used), hairiness for insulation, darker colours to
absorb sunlight and a smaller adult size which requires less growth in the short summer.
 The Alpine Thermocolour Grasshopper changes colour from lighter to darker as the
temperature gets cooler
 Bogong Moths migrate from the plains of north and western NSW, beyond Gunnedah and
Hay to shelter in rock crevices of the mountains during summer. Numbers of moths in some
crevices have been estimated at up to 17 000/m2.
3.0 Nature and Rate of Change which affects Ecosystem
Functioning
Like all ecosystems, Alpine Ecosystems do change over time. The causes of these changes
have predominantly been slow natural causes, but in recent times humans have contributed
greatly to the rapid changes that have occurred on the Kosciuszko Alpine Ecosystem.
Natural Change:
Periglaciation:
One of the major factors that affect the alpine ecosystem functioning is the effect of freezeing and
thawing (periglaciation). This is one of the major natural agents of change in the Kosciuszko Alpine
Ecosystem. As outlined in the gemorphological processes, periglacial weathering and erosion is a
significant force in the shaping of the lithosphere giving the Kosciuszko Alpine area its distinct
landscape. The rate of change is varied with major freezes occurring 4 months of the year with snow
packs inundating the area, to small snow patches occurring in the spring, summer and autumn
months. These snow patches continue shaping the landscape mainly through nivation.
The freeze and thawing also impacts the biopsphere, with both animal and plant communities
adapting to the extreme conditions. It has been observed in recent times that thawing is occurring
earlier and animals and plants are lured out into the open environment only to be caught out by
another major freeze. Many plants such as the snow daisies die and migrating birds are caught out
and die.
Ice ages
The current Alpine zone in the Kosciuszko area has been around since the end of the last Ice Age.
During colder periods in geological history, the high country surrounding Mt Kosciuszko becomes a
glacial environment, the only area in Australia to experience this. Subsequently, the lower
temperatures bring the treeline lower making the Alpine Ecosystem larger in extent. During natural
warming periods the Alpine zone shrinks making the cosystem smaller in extent.
Human Change:
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Global Warming
According to Kosciuszko National Park Independent Scientific Committee “Climate change is
increasingly recognised as having a diverse range of potential impacts on the Australian alpine and
subalpine biota, and is now identified as a major threat to some species and ecological communities”
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4.0 Human Impacts
4.1 Grazing and soil erosion
Grazing of the alpine area by cattle and sheep started in the 1830's (transhumance) and was
eventually prohibited above 1370 metres in 1958 due to severe soil erosion.
The low vegetation biomass meant there was little food for herbivores and once eaten, the plants
took a long time to grow back because of the short growing season due to the cold. This left the soil
unprotected from wind, water and ice, the agents of erosion. The high country was being used in an
unsustainable way. The effects of grazing in the area are still evident due to slow elasticity of alpine
plant communities.
4.2 Snowy Mountains Scheme
The Snowy Mountains Scheme is an incredible feat, tunneling through
the mountains to divert water from the eastern flowing rivers into the
western rivers for irrigation and the production of hydro-electricity. It
has come with an environmental cost though, in the high country the
immediate impact is on the modification to the flow of rivers and
creeks.
Flowing streams have been replaced by deep, still, ponded water
behind dams or dry river beds downstream of dams when water is not being released. This has a big
impact on stream ecology and the life cycles of aquatic invertebrates and native fish. The impact is
not just to the large rivers, most small streams have weirs and their water captured and diverted.
Pipers Creek, just before Smiggin Holes, a The weir built across Pipers Creek just below Pipers Creek below the weir is now just a
beautiful alpine stream supporting an where the photo at left was taken 'harvests' the series of stagnant pools.
important aquatic ecosystem.
water which is taken to Island Bend Dam on
the Snowy River and then to the Murray and
Murrumbidgee Rivers.
4.3 Ski Resorts
Ski resorts such as Perisher Blue, have a big impact on the immediate
area where the resorts are located. Impacts include the clearing of
vegetation to build lodges, roads and ski runs and pollution from sewage
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and other waste water. Overnight visitors in resorts produce five times the amount of rubbish and use
seven times more water than day visitors.
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4.4 Positive Human Impacts
Many positive human impacts have occurred as people have attempted to management the alpine
area for sustainable use. Positive impacts include:
 extensive soil conservation works carried out on the Main Range from
Mt. Kosciuszko to the Blue Lake area to rehabilitate badly eroded areas
caused during the cattle grazing era;
 removal of grazing in Kosciuszko NP;
 re vegetation of old vehicle tracks on the Main Range;
 construction of the raised walkway from Thredbo to Mt. Kosciuszko;
 removal of the vehicle road on the side of Mt. Kosciuszko and it's
replacement with a walking track (photo);
 the removal of some huts without heritage value from the Kosciuszko
area including Albina Lodge;
 a management plan which limits the number of people who can stay overnight in ski resorts
and
 a management plan which divides the area into management units so each can be managed
for sustainable use.
5.0 Contemporary and Aboriginal Management Strategies
5.1. Aboriginal Management
Aboriginal
people
used the alpine area
but there is very little
physical
evidence
left
of
their
presence. They did
not live permanently
in the high country,
but migrated there
seasonally. Although
the high country
generally has a low
carrying
capacity
(cannot
support
many
people),
Aboriginal people used it in a sustainable way. The migration of bogong moths to rest in the cool
mountains in summer represented a seasonal concentration of a food resource which allowed a
seasonal increase in the carrying capacity of the land which Aboriginal people exploited. The
Djilamatang from the western plains would gather near Tumut, the Ngario from the tablelands to the
east would gather near Jindabyne and the Jaitmajhang travelled from Victoria. Management was in
the form of the Aboriginal lifestyle and culture which followed a philosophy of stewardship. The
hunter-gather life style required a large area of land over which people moved from food source to
food source allowing previously occupied land a chance to recover. When tribes met at the various
meeting areas, before proceeding to the high country, they agreed on the areas which each tribe
might search for moths.
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Source: Kosciuszko National Park Plan of Management (2006) p.xi
5.2 Contemporary Management
The contemporary management of the Kosciuszko Alpine Area is underlined by a number of factors.
The area has both natural and cultural heritage values with unique landscapes and flora and fauna
found nowhere else in the world. Culturally, it is a significant area for Aboriginal people (they have an
inextricable link to the land) and European settlers, banjo Patterson’s Man from Snowy River poem
placed the area in the cultural heart of many Australians. Furthermore, the management of the area also
focus on the utility values that the Alpine Ecosystem offers. It Australia’s only Ski destination, bringing
in millions of dollars of tourism. It is also and important area of water harvesting providing irrigation
and hydroelectricity under the Snowy Mountains Hydro Scheme. Being a fragile ecosystem the
contemporary managers have used a conservation approach to the management of this ecosystem at
risk.
5.2.1 Management of Grazing –Snow Leases
The original graziers used the resource in a non-sustainable way when they grazed large numbers of sheep
and cattle. They introduced very large herbivores, cattle and sheep, to the food chain which ate large quantities
of plant matter. Because of the short growing season the plants could not grow back quickly, leaving the soil
unprotected and open to the agents of erosion, wind and water. The heavy hooves of the cattle also trampled
the fragile vegetation which created tracks which turned into erosion gullies. The graziers also burnt the area
before they left at the end of summer to encourage new growth for the following year. The vegetation of this
area is not adapted to survive fire, it was not part of the natural environment. Fire resulted in the death of snow
gums and the replacement of the tall alpine herbfield with more fire tolerant shrubs. An attempt was made to
manage the alpine area with the introduction of grazing leases in 1889. This controlled areas allocated to lease
holders but did not control livestock numbers. In 1943 snow leases were introduced which restricted stock
numbers and burning. In 1944 the Kosciusko State Park was established and grazing of the alpine area was
progressively phased out and by 1958 all grazing above 1370 metres was prohibited and the Soil Conservation
Service commenced revegetation work.
5.2.2 National Park and Management Zones and Units
The most significant development in sustainable management occurred when the area was declared a national
park in 1967. The area was now covered by government legislation to protect it but this also allowed use by
people.
To protect but also allow sustainable use caused a dilemma for the managers of Kosciuszko National Park.
There are many possible land uses but which ones are compatible with the sustainable use of the
environment? Not all alpine and sub-alpine areas are the same. The Kosciuszko area is the highest and most
fragile and the area most in demand by tourists. Some areas have very little access, towards the centre of the
Park and surrounded by very rugged terrain, other areas are near the edge of the Park and have good access
and snow cover in winter.
A major management tool was to divide the Park into different management zones and units and to manage
each of these differently. The zoning scheme for the park provides an overarching framework of linked, but
varying, management strategies. The purpose of the zoning scheme is to:
• Protect the values of the park;
• Optimise opportunities for a wide range of recreational activities and visitor experiences; and
• Minimise conflict between participants in different recreational activities, and between visitors,
management operations and other authorised uses
The park is subdivided into the following five management zones (Map 6):
• Wilderness Zone - Wilderness areas declared under the Wilderness Act 1987;
• Back Country Zone - Those parts of the park without public road access and not within declared
wilderness areas;
• Minor Road Corridors - Corridors along minor public roads and associated visitor developments;
• Major Road Corridors - Corridors along major sealed and unsealed public roads and associated
visitor developments; and
• Visitor Services Zone - Alpine resorts, development nodes and operational centres.
Some zones include places of exceptional significance and have an additional classification (management
units). These include the alpine landscapes of the Main Range and the Yarrangobilly karst catchment.
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5.2.2.1 Examples of Management zones
Back Country Zone
Some management decisions for this area include the following.
 No commercial development.
 People are encouraged to stay to
tracks via signs and the track was
improve for easier walking. The
raised
metal
walkway
to
Kosciuszko allows plants to grow
beneath it.
 Camping beside the glacial lakes
and in their catchments is not
allowed because of the pollution.
 Huts which were in fragile places
or did not have a heritage or
survival value were removed.
 No campfires above the treeline are allowed because the slow growing shrubs are
burnt.
 The road to Mt. Kosciuszko from Charlottes Pass was closed to vehicles.
 A walking track up the eastern side of Mt. Kosciuszko was closed and is now being re
vegetated.
 Soil erosion areas caused by earlier cattle grazing were rehabilitated with mulch, tar
and seed.
 The walking track from Charlottes Pass to Blue Lake has also been paved
Visitor Service Zone
The major ski resorts pose a problem because they started
to develop before there were any planning controls.
Perisher Valley is very spread out, quite large and is in a
more sensitive, higher altitude location than Thredbo.
Because Perisher has a lot of overnight accommodation, it
is basically a town with all the services required by a town
including. restaurants, fire station, ambulance station,
medical centre, large car park, sewage treatment plant,
water
supply
and
waste
disposal
problems.
The NPWS have tried to manage the resorts for sustainable
use by having land use zones within the resorts. The resorts
have zones for lodges, ski runs, areas that must stay
natural (snow gum areas), restaurants and so on. Any
proposal for development must be accompanied by an
Environmental Impact Statement or just an Environmental Statement for a small
development. The state government now has a specialised planning unit, Planning
NSW,based in Queenbeyan to control development within KNP following the Thredbo
landslide disaster. The Alpine Resorts Plan will operate with the NPWS Management Plan
and will apply to eight locations: Thredbo Village, Perisher, Charlotte Pass, Mt Selwyn,
Skitube and others.
A major strategy in this zone is to limit the size of
resorts by the number of beds allowed for overnight
guests. Perisher Blue Resort was allowed 3 183 beds
but the new Blue Cow Resort shown here only has
one main building and 25 beds for workers. (Recent
political lobbying by commercial interests appears to
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have by-passed the Plan of Management to allow many more beds in Perisher Blue in the
future.) Hence, the Blue Cow Resort does not have all of the problems associated with
overnight visitors.
The Ski Tube is another major management tool in this
zone. It takes day visitors to Perisher and Mt. Blue Cow.
This encourages skiers to sleep outside of the park and
stay in Jindabyne, a far less fragile area, and visit the park
on a day basis. The Ski Tube is the only access to Mt.
Blue Cow Resort, thus protecting the fragile area around
this resort from the for need for roads, car parking and
pollution from cars
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35. Management : Plant Communities
Within the alpine area, each vegetation
community poses it's own management
problems because some communities are
mor
e
fragil
e
than
othe
rs and the total area of some is extremely
small.
Windswept feldmark is very fragile and
of
very limited area, growing on exposed
ridges. Plants grow very slowly and the
soil
erosion hazard is extreme. Unfortunately
these are also the areas people like to walk to for the best views. Where possible walking
tracks should go around these areas and raised mesh viewing platforms will be constructed
in popular areas.
Bog communities are also extremely fragile and limited in area. Fortunately people don't
like walking through boggy areas but cattle did and they caused the death of many bog
communities. Once trampled the sphagnum moss died and small streams formed in the
cattle tracks. The streams then drained the water from the bogs and they dried out, killing the
water loving plants. Grazing was incompatible with sustainable use of bog communities and
this was a major reason for the removal of cattle from the high country.
Short alpine herbfield communities are again fragile and limited in extent, found below
melting snow patches in summer. Visitors like to slide down these snow patches and their
feet land in the short alpine herbfield. The management dilemma is how to protect the plants
while allowing visitors to have fun.
Heath communities provide the only wood which campers can burn for fires. A small branch
may have taken hundreds of years to grow so camp fires are banned above the treeline.
Tall alpine herbfields are the toughest plant community and cover the largest area. It is the
best community to locate walking tracks in. Then cattle were selective eaters, preferring
some plants and not the tough poa (snow grass) which dominated the community. As a
result some plants became rare and the community lost some of it's biodiversity. Since
grazing was stopped, many herbs such as mountain celery and the anemone buttercup are
becoming more common.
36. Management : threatened species
The habitats of rare or threatened native animals are managed to minimise disturbance. The
Mountain Pygmy-possum (Burramys)was only know as a fossil until it was discovered in
1966. It lives among granite boulders above an altitude of 1600 m, with the females living in
better habitat near the tops of mountains, while the males live in poorer habitat lower down.
To mate the males must migrate up the mountains using boulder fields for protection. When
the new Mount Blue Cow Resort was being planned, a population of possums was found on
a proposed ski slope which needed to be cleared of boulders for skier safety. This would
have hindered the migration of males so a long ditch was dug and filled with boulders so the
possums could still migrate up and down the mountain. Photo
courtesy NPWS Linda Broome
Other threatened species include the Anemone
Buttercup and the Coroboree Frog (image
courtesy MDBC) .
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5.1 Management: maintenance of genetic diversity
There is only 250 km2 of true alpine ecosystem in Australia. It occurs, not as one big block
but as many small isolated 'islands', where the land is above the altitude of the treeline. This
makes it very difficult for animals and plants adapted to alpine environments to recolonise a
damaged area. They cannot cross the low altitude
areas between 'islands'.
This photo shows a plot in the Bogong High Plains in
Victoria which was been fenced off from cattle
grazing by Maisy Fawcett, Melbourne University, in
1947. Cattle are selective grazers, preferring the
small flowering plants to the grasses which now
dominate the grazed area at the bottom part of the
photo dominated by poa (snow grass).
26. Management: heritage values
Cultural heritage includes evidence of the cattle grazing
era with the many huts which were used by cattlemen
during summer grazing of the high country. This is
Cascade hut near Thredbo.
Natural heritage
in alpine areas
includes
our
highest mountain,
evidence of the last glaciation with the glacial land
forms of lakes, cirques and moraines and the alpine
plants and animals.
27. Management: intrinsic and natural values
Intrinsic
Values:
the
alpine
area
is
valued
for
its
natural
beauty.
Natural change: it is important to protect special places from human induced change and
allow
ecosystems
to
function
naturally.
Human induced changes include accelerated soil erosion, vegetation clearing, the loss of
native animals through habitat modification and introduced animals and plants.
Mt. Kosciuszko from Charlottes Pass.
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28. Management: utility values
Alpine areas have many uses for people.
Because there is so little snow country, these
uses focus human impact on the small alpine
'islands'. Alpine areas have also been used for
gold mining, cattle grazing and as a water
catchment for the Snowy Mountains Scheme.
Important dates include:





1836 first
settlers with
uncontrolled
free
range
grazing
1860 gold mining at Kiandra
1906 Kosciusko National
Chase formed for public
recreation
1931 Chalet at Charlottes
Pass built
1949
Snowy
Mountains
Hydro-electric
Scheme
commenced




1957 first commercial ski
development at Thredbo
1960-67 rapid development of
ski resorts
1990 visitor numbers exceed 3
million annually
1999 Minister for Urban Affairs
and Planning approves the
development
of
additional
accommodation at Perisher
Range
resorts
following
political lobbying by powerful
private businesses.
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