DET: Craft and Design
The Design Process
(Higher)
4460
Autumn 1998
HIGHER STILL
DET: Craft and
Design
The Design Process
(Higher)
Support Materials

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Teachers notes
Introduction
This publication provides students with a detailed description of the design process and how
it can be applied to folio production in Craft and Design. It can be used to give an overview of
the design process or to cover discrete elements throughout the course. Although written for
Higher this resource can be used at Intermediate 2 as the process is exactly the same - but
students are simply not required to go to the same depth.
Aesthetics and ergonomics have been mentioned on page 9 and materials and processes on
page 10. It should be noted that support materials have been published which cover these
topics in some detail. In particular, page 9 of the Ergonomics pack covers task analysis which
should be covered at the analysis and synthesis stage of the design process.
Finally, some of the folio diagrams, such as the mind map on page 8, have been simplified in
order to make them clear in reduction. The example shows a series of general headings which
should be expanded further.
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Approaches to teaching and learning
Higher
Aspects of the design process have to be covered in outcomes 3 and 4 of unit 2 (Designing for
People), outcome 3 of unit 3 (Designing for Manufacture) and outcome 1 of unit 4 (Product
Model). In addition to this students must work through all aspects of the design process when
attempting the design assignment for the course award.
Most students will be familiar with the design process from Standard Grade however a
general overview should be given at the start for revision and to highlight the additional depth
to which they should go at Higher. It is important that students understand how the design
process approximates invention (p5).
Most of us cannot rely on sudden inspiration like a genius or inventor. Thus the design
process has been developed to lead us through the stages of designing in a structured manner
and to avoid anything getting missed out. The folio is a vehicle for communicating that
journey from problem to solution so that anyone who reads it can understand what has been
designed, why it was designed and how it will be made.
Throughout the course the students may work through all or parts of the design process
several times and naturally their work should improve through time and experience. Their
initial attempts should be fairly structured. Teachers/lecturers should set them discrete tasks
such as writing a design brief and lead them through each stage using exemplars as a guide.
One way of doing this would be to work through the whole design process in one folio early
on in the course and use this to set the required standards. As the course progresses, students
should be more familiar with the design process and thus capable of working through it on
their own.
As mentioned previously the main difference between the way in which the design process is
covered at Higher and Intermediate 2 is the depth to which students work. Most of the
examples in the booklet reflect Higher level work. The specification for example should
clearly reflect the findings of the analysis and investigation rather than a series of vague
statements plucked out of the air.
During the idea generation and development stages the students should investigate several
ideas and justify their decisions against the specification . Idea generation techniques such as
brainstorming and morphological analysis should be used. When planning a course,
consideration can be given as to when each of the idea generation techniques should be used.
For example, brainstorming could be used in the first project followed by morphological
analysis in the second and so on. The design assignment would provide the students with an
opportunity to choose the most appropriate method for their project.
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Intermediate 2
Aspects of the design process have to be covered in outcomes 3 and 4 of unit 2 (Designing for
People), outcomes 2 and 3 of unit 3 (Designing for Manufacture) and during the design
assignment for the course award. The more simplistic approach required at this level suggests
the need for more focused tasks to be given to the students. For example, when conducting an
analysis of a torch the students should be asked to consider how ergonomic factors which will
affect the design. This should be followed up by a separate task on aesthetic factors.
As with Higher, the students should be lead through the design process early on in a
structured manner in order to set the required standards.
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The Design Process
Problem situation
Design brief
Analysis of brief
Investigation/research
Specification
Initial idea generation
Development of ideas
Selection of solution
Synthesis
Planning for manufacture
Manufacture
Evaluation
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Introduction
The design process is a systematic activity which seeks to approximate invention. However a
designer can not afford to wait for inspiration, he or she must be able to produce ideas
systematically.
“Things never come in a flash: they come as a result of months, even years of hard work.”
(Barnes Wallis)
The way in which designers think can be
illustrated in five stages - These stages
are always present in the design process.
The diagram right shows a Design
Activity Model which illustrates the
complete design process. Although this
process is shown as being linear with a
start and a finish in reality the design
process is best represented by circles or
spirals. The diagram can be considered
to be a circle or a spiral straightened out.
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The design process begins with a design
brief and ends with an evaluation of the
design solution. Initially from the design
brief the designer will look at the factors and
considerations in an ever widening field.
But at some time in the process it will
become necessary to halt this and begin
closing down the range of considerations
finally converging on the solution. This is
illustrated in the diagram to the right. The
time scale for the design process is
dependent on the complexity of the design
exercise and on deadlines imposed on the
designer from outside.
Let us now look at each stage of the design
process in more detail.
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The design brief
The design brief is the starting point for any design exercise. The design brief should contain
sufficient information to put the problem in context and to indicate the requirements. But it
must not impose unnecessary constraints on the solutions which might be proposed.
Simply, the design brief will state WHAT the problem is and WHY there is a need for a new
design.
When writing a design brief the following questions should be answered:
What is the nature of the problem/need?
Why has the problem/need arisen?
What are the implications of a new design?
An example of a design brief is shown below:
Garden tools such as spades, rakes, forks, etc come in a variety of shapes and sizes. The
storage of these items in a garage or shed can cause a variety of problems. The tools get
tangled up or stuck behind each other. You may require only one tool which is behind the
others. Or you could stand on a tool such as a rake which could cause an accident.
The main reason for this is that they vary in length and that the ends and handles vary in
shape and size.
A device is required which will store the above items in a space saving manner whilst
allowing easy access to each item at any time. Such a device would prevent accidents with
such tools whilst making the task of gardening more efficient and enjoyable.
Open/closed brief
The brief is normally written by the client or end user and agreed with the designer. However
the way in which it is written can have an impact on the outcome of the final design.
An open brief is one which sets out what has to be designed in fairly broad terms. This leaves
it open to interpretation by the designer and thus a wide range of possible solutions could be
proposed. One advantage of this is that a truly original solution could be proposed, however a
disadvantage would be that the designer could propose an unsuitable solution and thus time
and money would be wasted.
A closed brief sets out the need in fairly specific terms. This gives the client greater control
over the design process but limits the designers creative freedom thus decreasing the chance
of an innovative design being proposed.
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Investigation
The investigation stage should include an analysis of the problem area and then research into
the factors which will influence the design.
Lets look at each of these in greater detail.
Analysis
analysis, an-al’is-is, n.a breaking up of a thing in to its parts
If we analyse something then we hopefully gain a better understanding of it. So, when faced
with a problem, break it up into its component parts and look at them in greater detail.
To begin with you could conduct a brainstorming session and think of all the possible factors
which may influence the design. Start by writing the name of the problem area in the center
of the page and write down all of the possible design factors around it. The following
headings may provide a useful starting point:

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
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Safety
Materials/ Processes
Cost
Ergonomics
The environment
Aesthetics
Market.
The diagram below shows an analysis of the factors influencing the design of a child’s chair.
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When writing up an analysis of the brief in your folio/report you should consider function and
at least five other design factors. The following tasks should be used as a guide:
Function
Explain the precise nature of the use to which the product has to be put and discuss the
implications it will have on the design.
Safety
Investigate the safety factors which should be considered for anyone who will come into
contact with the product.
Ergonomics
Explain what parts of the product people will come into contact with and discuss hoe this may
affect the design.
Aesthetics
Discuss how important aesthetics will be for the function/saleability of the product.
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Research
In carrying out an effective analysis exercise on the problem area you should have identified
all of the important areas which need to be researched in detail. This information gathering
stage should give you more insight in to the problem thus allowing you to produce a more
effective design.
The following list of research tasks is not exhaustive but should give you a guide as to what
you could do. Some will be described in greater detail later.
Product analysis
By investigating existing or similar products you can learn from the
successes and failures of previous designs.
Safety
Investigate the safety factors which may affect your design and
discuss the implications they may have on the final solution.
Materials/processes
What materials and processes are available or suitable to
manufacture this product and how may they affect the design?
Marketing
Who do you intend to aim this product at and how would you
describe them? i.e. age, gender, job, interests etc. Make up a
styleboard to show the characteristics of your chosen market
Cost
Having conducted a marketing exercise you should be able to
suggest a target price for your product.
Environment
How will the environment affect your product? e.g. size, aesthetics,
conditions, other related objects.
User research
A marketable product is one which appeals to a wide range of
people. To make your product more marketable consider the views
of those who are most likely to use it by conducting a user trip and
issuing a questionnaire to your target market.
Thematic research
Where style is an important aspect of a product design you may wish
to use a theme as a starting point for your design work. The theme
could be anything from natural forms to the Bauhaus School of
Design. This part of a folio should include plenty of visual and
written information which could be displayed as a fact sheet or
poster.
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Specification
A specification is a statement of the characteristics that a design must possess in order to meet
the requirements of the design brief. It is written on completion of your research in to the
problem and must be constantly referred to and updated if necessary in order that all the
elements of the design are covered.
If written and used properly it will allow the designer to ensure that all aspects of the design
are covered.
The various aspects of the specification should be divided up under the following headings
for easy understanding:
Performance/function
 Safety
 Manufacture
 Marketing
Ergonomics/anthropometrics
 Materials
 Aesthetics
Several points could be made under each heading.
The example below shows a specification for a child’s chair
Performance
1. The design must support the weight of a child up to the age of four years old.
2. The design must incorporate some form of table of tray for eating, playing etc.
Ergonomics
3. The design must suit the anthropometric data of one to four year olds.
4. The design must be easy to lift by an adult.
Safety
5. The design must have no sharp edges.
6. The finish on the design must be non-toxic.
7. The design must have no loose small parts which could be swallowed.
Materials
8. The materials used must withstand scrapes, bashes, food spills etc.
9. The materials used should not splinter or chip easily.
Manufacture
10. The design should be easy to manufacture in an average workshop with basic wood, metal
and plastic tools/machinery.
Aesthetics
11. The aesthetics of the design must appeal to the age group it is aimed at i.e. Primary
colours, simple shapes.
Marketing
12. The design must be affordable by a typical young family.
13. The design will be sold in toy departments in large department stores.
14. Whilst the design must be aimed at children between the ages of one and four, their
parents who will buy it must also be made aware of its benefits.
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Primary and secondary functions
In any specification there are always some aspects that are more important than others. These
can be divided in to two groups - PRIMARY and SECONDARY FUNCTIONS. The primary
functions are those that are vital for the design to do its job whilst the secondary functions are
those which although important could be compromised for the benefit of the primary
functions. Dividing your specification up in this way helps you to prioritise, especially in the
early stages of designing where you should only concern yourself with the important aspects
of the design.
The primary functions of a kettle are as follows:
 It must hold 1.5 L of water.
 It must boil the water.
 It must have a spout and a handle to allow easy pouring.
These functions will allow the designer to produce a range of sketch ideas without getting
bogged down with such things as water level indicators.
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Ideas
There are many methods which you can use to generate ideas and these will be discussed later
in greater detail. At the moment it is only necessary to outline the way in which the idea
generation should progress in order to reach a final solution.
Initial ideas
The first stage is to produce a range of‘Sketch or Initial Ideas. There should be a large
quantity of these ideas and they should investigate a wide range of possible solutions. In
order to make this stage easier the designer should concentrate on generating ideas which
meet the primary functions of the design. These are often called Sketch Ideas because that is
what they are - simple sketches. Below is an example of a page of sketch ideas.
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Idea generation techniques
One difficulty that many designers encounter when trying to solve a problem is coming up
with new or original ideas. When faced with a blank page it can be very difficult to start to
generate ideas so a number of techniques have been developed which provide starting points
for new ideas. The main aim behind each of these techniques is to steer you away from
conventional or existing solutions to a problem and to help you to produce more creative
ideas.
Brainstorming
Brainstorming is an activity in which a group of people are asked to focus their attention on a
specific issue or problem and generate a large number of ideas in a short space of time. One
of the advantages of working in a group is that others may see the problem from a different
perspective thus creating fresh ideas. This in turn stops others from becoming set on one
particular train of thought.
The rules of brainstorming are:
 the problem must be defined in fairly simple terms to encourage a variety of solutions
 no criticism of any idea is allowed - judgment should be withheld until later
 all ideas should be welcomed, however bizarre they may appear
 the emphasis should be on producing a large number of ideas
 building on others ideas should be welcomed.
Insisting on such rules leads to a relaxed environment where people are not inhibited from
thinking freely.
The ideas could be recorded in note or sketch form or a combination of both, a spray diagram
is another popular method. Once the session is over however, it will then be necessary to sift
through the ideas and select those which show potential for further development.
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Morphological analysis
Morphological analysis involves analyzing a class of products into its main features or
functions called parameters. For each parameter you should then suggest a variety of ways of
meeting that parameter. These parameters can then be combined at random to create starting
points for new ideas.
If we take the example of a coffee table, we could define the parameters as; the shape of the
legs, the shape of the top, the material for the leg and the material for the top. Using these as
headings, the next stage is to list a variety of different options for each parameter. See
example below.
LEG SHAPE
Cylinder
Thin sheet
Tapered cylinder
Square section
Cube
Sphere
Three different
Like human legs
LEG MATERIAL
Steel tube
Plywood
Pine
Acrylic
Oak
Clay
Cast aluminium
Steel sheet
TOP SHAPE
Circle
Hexagon
Square
Curvy sides
Zig zag
Biomorphic
Triangle
Oval
TOP MATERIAL
MDF
Steel Sheet
Pine
Plywood
Acrylic
Aluminium
Card
Corrugated iron
Following this you should then select one suggestion from each column at random to create a
word combination which describes a starting point for a new idea. For example tapered, cast
aluminium, biomorphic and plywood. A first sketch could be for a table with tapered cast
aluminium legs with a plywood top based on natural forms.
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Lateral thinking
Lateral thinking is a creative way of using the mind and was developed by Edward De Bono.
The term lateral thinking was chosen to distinguish it from what is perhaps the conventional
form - vertical thinking. Vertical thinking represents the kind of logical approach where each
step follows from the previous one. Any conclusion can be explained by looking at the path
taken to reach it. Such vertical approaches have a significant place in design, but there is also
a major role for lateral thinking. Lateral thinking is for generating ideas, logical thinking is
for developing and using them.
Lateral thinking welcomes chance and can involve jumping from one thing to another. It is
always positive so as not to block the pathways to new ideas and does not label or classify
things allowing them to be used freely in other situations.
A simple lateral thinking exercise would be to describe the figure below:
A triangle on a rectangle
The end of a house
A square with two corners missing
Two polygons side by side
This clearly shows how many different ways we can look at one thing.
If we take the problem of the coffee table again, lateral thinking could be used to generate
ideas for supporting the top (note that the word legs has not been used to prevent
labelling).Thus, ways of supporting the table top could be:
 hang it from the roof
 one central column with a wide base
 three legs
 attach to a wall
 join two boards in a cross shape
 two legs and one board
 four legs
 a cylinder or drum.
As before these are starting points and need to be analysed and developed further.
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Developed ideas
Having produced a range of initial ideas at least two of them should be developed. Design
factors such as ergonomics, aesthetics and safety and at least three others must be considered
at this stage and all changes and decisions should be justified.
At this stage you should also start to incorporate the secondary functions of the design.
During this stage in the process the design may alter slightly or on the other hand it may
change completely in to a new idea. You may incorporate features from other ideas in your
design or combine two separate ideas to create a new one. This is quite normal and part of
the process of designing.
Modeling can be a very effective method of developing your ideas, particularly when
ergonomic aspects are being considered. Clay, card and polystyrene are suitable materials as
they allow ‘sketch’ models to be made quickly. Models can also be used to test out
mechanisms such as pivots or linkages where clearances have to be worked out.
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Synthesis
As mentioned earlier, analysis involves breaking a problem down and expanding it.
Synthesis is the opposite and involves bringing the strands of an idea together to produce a
final solution.
At this stage the designer must sift through his/her ideas selecting one and rejecting others.
The best way to do this is to compare the ideas with the specification to see how they perform
in relation to it.
When selecting or rejecting ideas you should give good reasons for your choice. Saying that
you have chosen an idea because it is ‘good’ is not a sufficient explanation. You must give
good reasons with respect to the following areas:
Performance
Ergonomics
Aesthetics
Manufacture
Maintenance
Safety
How well will it do its job?
How easy/comfortable is it to use?
How pleasing is its appearance and finish.
(Harmonious/contrasting forms/shapes/colours ).
Will this product be easy to make? By what processes will it be
made?
Will the product be easy to look after? e.g. Changing batteries.
Will the product be safe to use? Sharp edges etc.
Once you have selected and justified your final idea it is likely that more development and
detailing will have to be done to enable it to meet the specification. Your answers to the
questions above should highlight areas in need of development. This development could take
the form of models, scale drawings, cut away views etc.
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Detailing, planning and manufacture
This section of a design folio should contain sufficient information about the design for
someone to be able to make your design without having to ask you any questions. Thus the
following aspects of the design must be covered:
Choice of materials
Important dimensions
Methods of manufacture (i.e. vacuum forming)
Joints and other methods of construction
Finishes
A sequence of operations
The best way to start this is to produce a dimensioned sketch of your design for a CD rack as
shown. As you can see from this example the designer has worked in 2D producing plans and
elevations of the details as required.
To begin with a box representing the amount of storage space required for 20 CDs was
drawn. This gives the inside size of the design. After deciding on the size of the stock
material available (15mm) the outside size could be worked out and then the length of each
piece of material after considering the joints being used.
Sketching your final solution in this way allows you to work out all of the finer details of
your design before committing yourself to a formal technical drawing. This and the cutting
list are the last parts to be done before manufacture.
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Planning for commercial manufacture
The previous section dealt with the manufacture of a model or prototype in a school
workshop. However if this product were to be mass produced, the materials and methods
used to manufacture it may differ greatly from those used in the school workshop. As before,
similar question should be asked such as:
 What materials will be used?
 How will the main parts be manufactured?
 What finishes will be used?
 How will the product be assembled?
 How do the main components fit in?
A short justification for each decision will demonstrate your understanding and help to
explain your solution to others.
This part of your solution could be tackled using exploded views (as shown below), cut away
views or perhaps acetate or tracing paper overlays which show the outside, the inside with
components and the inside without components.
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Evaluation
Evaluation involves judging your work to decide how successful it is. Your final solution
should be evaluated to find out whether it can be improved. The benchmark for a good
design is one which meets all of the points on the specification so this is the first thing that
the final design should be checked against. However there may be many other points that you
can think of having gone through the process of actually making the design.
The evaluation is usually presented in the form of a written statement or report with sketches
and annotations as required. The following points should be considered:
1. Explain how well your design meets the main design factors which were considered at the
start of the project.
2. How does your solution compare with other similar products available?
3. What do other people think about your design?
4. What are the good things about your design?
5. What are the bad things about your design?
6. What parts could be improved/modified?
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