CHAPTER 12: ACHIEVEMENT, CAREERS, AND WORK
INTRODUCTION
The pace of global change influences adolescents to adapt to societal and academic pressure and to
identify strategies for reaching their goals. Adolescents’ efforts to investigate roles for themselves
have an ongoing influence and appear to be predictive of later success. Extrinsic motivation,
encouraged or discouraged by external consequences; and intrinsic motivation, self-generated
curiosity, challenge, or knowledge, represent two major factors that influence adolescent
achievement. Motivation can be influenced by the degree to which adolescents believe they are selfdetermined and have personal choices and responsibilities. Csikszentmihalyi describes flow as
optimizing motivation and concentration resulting from agreeable levels of challenge, concentration, and mastery.
Attribution theory explains how adolescents construe the outcomes and consequences
they experience. Weiner described three dimensions of causal attributions:

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Locus (internal-external)—internal explanations for success influence increased selfesteem
Stability (stable-unstable)—stable and unstable causes are associated with predictable
outcomes
Controllability (controllable-uncontrollable)—controllability influences emotional responses
Self-esteem depends on the explanation of success; emotional responses depend on
causal attribution.
Three classes of achievement motivation emerged from research: mastery, helpless, and
performance.
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Mastery orientation—focus is on the task, show enthusiasm, generate solutionoriented strategies
Helplessness orientation—focus is on personal inadequacies, difficulties attributed
to ability
Performance orientation—focus is on winning and success, not process and skill
development
Self-efficacy—belief in an ability to master a situation, similar to mastery orientation
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Goal setting, planning, and self-monitoring—defines manageable pieces for both the
short- and long-term, set specific and challenging goals, measure progress toward goals
Expectations—when parents and teachers have high expectations for adolescents
they perform better
Anxiety—normally, moderate levels of fear, apprehension, concern, or worry about
success
Ethnicity and culture influence achievement by children and adolescents of minority groups.
Cultural differences may influence students to demonstrate distinctly different goals and patterns of
achievement. The influence of socioeconomic status, racial prejudice, conflicts in values between
minority and majority cultures, and characteristics of mega-system schools in large cities easily are
confused with “ethnic deficits.” Cross-cultural examinations of adolescent performance clarify the
impact of teachers’ focus on academic subjects, number of days in school, parents’ expectations, and
assistance for student achievement. U.S. students perform poorly in math and science in crosscultural comparisons of the top 25 percent of students. Low-achieving adolescents in general require
learning goals, additional support, efficacy retraining, and meaningful assignments that are both
interesting and challenging to eliminate self-handicapping strategies and to improve academic
competence and self-confidence.
Adolescent employment has become increasingly common since the 1970s; 75 percent of
students combine school and work. Students typically work in fast-food restaurants (17 percent),
retail stores (20 percent), as office assistants, or as unskilled laborers. Longer hours and higher
pay are typical for males. Adolescent employment provides an opportunity to develop skills that
can be applied to all jobs, but employment often has disadvantages. Students give up time for
school activities, studying, and socializing; 25 percent reported that their grades dropped and
personal care declined following employment. Part-time jobs of 20 hours or less per week are
associated with better adolescent outcomes. In countries where adolescents do not attend school,
boys engage in income-generating labor and girls engage in unpaid household labor.
Many adolescents work while attending college. Although working can help pay for
college it can negatively affect grades.
Making the transition from school to work presents serious difficulties for about 5 percent of
the adolescent population. Recommendations for facilitating the transition include: monitor work
experiences, expand community involvement, provide job-specific education, guarantee employment, improve career counseling, and recruit volunteers as mentors.
Work and career-based learning provide opportunities to focus on specific career themes
to prepare students for jobs or post-secondary education in specific occupations or fields.
Career development depends on exploration, decision-making, and planning. Three theories:


Ginzberg’s developmental career choice theory—children and adolescents progress
through three career-choice stages that includes
 fantasy
 realistic
 tentative
Super’s career self-concept theory—a five-phase theory that includes
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
 crystallization
 stabilization
 specification
 consolidation
 implementation
Holland’s personality type theory—six personality types that includes
 realistic
 conventional
 intellectual
 enterprising
 social
 artistic
Adolescents usually need assistance in exploring, deciding, and planning appropriate
career paths. Adolescents further along in the identity crisis seem better able to make choices and
set goals. Although expectations are high for attending college and working in a professional job,
loose associations are made between these expectations, educational requirements, and future
employment opportunities.
Sociocultural contexts that influence career choices include:
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Socioeconomic status—higher levels of education are associated with upward mobility.
Parents and peers—parents’ expectations push students into the wrong career; parents
and peers influence career choice by exposure, example, and expectation.
School influences—few counselors are available to help students find career opportunities; school counselors must cooperate with classroom teachers, parents, and community
members.
Gender—females have been socialized to have limited career goals and expectations;
they need exposure to career options and life choices, particularly in technologybased fields.
Ethnic minority adolescents—minority groups have been excluded from mainstream
opportunities; minority adolescents need career awareness designed specifically for
them.
TOTAL TEACHING PACKAGE OUTLINE
Chapter 12: Achievement, Careers, and Work
HEADING
I.
ACHIEVEMENT
RESOURCE
Learning Goal: 1
In-Class Activity: 12.1
Critical Thinking Exercise: 12.1
Research Article: 12.1
The Importance of Achievement in Adolescence
Essay Question: 1
Achievement Processes
In-Class Activity: 12.2
Learning Goal: 1
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Research Project: 12.1
Essay Question: 2
WWW: Motivation and Achievement; Intrinsic Motivation at
www.mhhe.com/santrocka10
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Self-Determination and Personal Choice
Essay Question: 2
Optimal Experiences and Flow
In-Class Activity: 12.2
Attribution
Learning Objective: 3
Essay Question: 2
WWW: Attribution; Effort, Expectations, and Motivation at
www.mhhe.com/santrocka10
Mastery Motivation
Learning Objective: 4
Essay Questions: 2, 3
Lecture Topic: 1
WWW: Mastery Motivation at www.mhhe.com/ santrocka10
Self-Efficacy
Lecture Topic: 12.1
Essay Question: 3
Goal Setting, Planning, and Self-Monitoring Lecture Topic: 12.1
In-Class Activity: 12.1
Research Project: 12.2
Essay Question: 4
Anxiety
Expectations
Ethnicity and Culture
Lecture Topic: 12.3
WWW: Goal-Setting; Anxiety at www.mhhe.com/santrocka10
Learning Goal: 1
Essay Question: 5
Critical Thinking Exercise: 12.3
Ethnicity
Careers in Adolescent Development: Jaime Escalante, Secondary
School Math Teacher
Culture
WWW: Harold Stevenson’s Research at
www.mhhe.com/santrocka10
Motivating Low-Achieving Adolescents
Learning Goal: 1
Essay Question: 6
Low Achievers with Low Ability
Research Article: 12.2
Adolescents with Failure Syndrome
Discussion Topic: 12.3
Adolescents Motivated to Protect Their Self- Short Scenario: 12.1
Worth by Avoiding Failure
III.
WORK
Learning Goal: 2
Image Gallery: 157
Lecture Topic: 12.1
Discussion Topics: 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4
Research Article: 12.1
Research Project: 12.1
Short Scenario: 12.3
Sociohistorical Context of Work
Learning Goal: 2
Advantages and Disadvantages of Part-Time Work
in Adolescence
Image Gallery: 140, 170
Short Scenario: 12.3
Essay Question: 9
WWW: The Working Adolescent at www.mhhe.com/santrocka10
Work Profiles Around the World
Learning Goal: 2
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Working While Going to College
II.
The Transition from School to Work
Research Article: 12.2
Essay Question: 10
WWW: Improving School-Work Transitions; National Institute for
Work and Learning; School-to-Work Transition in Canada; Job
Corps at www.mhhe.com/santrocka10
Work/Career-Based Learning
High School
College
Image Gallery: 139, 160, 176
Lecture Topic: 12.1
Discussion Topic: 12.3
WWW: National Center for Research in Vocational Education;
Exploring Vocational Education; Roosevelt Renaissance 2000;
Vocational Training in Europe at www.mhhe.com/santrocka10
CAREER DEVELOPMENT
Learning Goal: 3
Lecture Topic: 12.2
Discussion Topics: 12.1, 12.2
Critical Thinking Exercise: 12.1
Research Project: 12.1, 12.2
WWW: ERIC—Adult, Career and Vocational Education;
http://www.ericacve.org/
Theories of Career Development
Discussion Topic: 12.5
Critical Thinking Exercise: 12.2
Essay Question: 7
Ginzberg’s Developmental Theory
Super’s Self-Concept Theory
Holland’s Personality Type Theory
Criticism of Career Choice Theories
WWW: Holland’s Personality Types; Journal of Vocational
Behavior; Career Development Quarterly; Journal of Counseling
Psychology at www.mhhe.com/santrocka10
Cognitive Factors
Image Gallery: 159
Discussion Topic: 12.5
Careers in Adolescent Development: Grace Leaf, College/Career
Counselor
Social Contexts
Essay Question: 8
WWW: Career Planning; National Career Development Association
at www.mhhe.com/ santrocka10
Socioeconomic Status
Essay Question: 8
Parents and Peers
Essay Question: 8
WWW: Occupational Outlook Handbook at
www.mhhe.com/santrocka10
School Influences
Lecture Topic: 12.1
Essay Question: 8
Gender
Image Gallery: 158
Lecture Topic: 12.3
Essay Question: 8
Through the Eyes of Adolescents: Thinking About Barriers
WWW: Girls and Careers at www.mhhe.com/ santrocka10
Ethnic Minority Adolescents
Critical Thinking Exercise: 12.3
Careers in Adolescent Development: Armando Ronquillo, High
School Counselor/College Advisor
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SUGGESTED LECTURE TOPICS
Topic 12.1—Lifelong Learning
After adolescents make a choice about career goals, they must begin a series of activities that
allows them to have the job and achieve career success. Schaie and Willis (1996) refer to this
process as “early professional socialization.” Adolescents and young adults learn how to get
along with co-workers, how to get along with managers and bosses, and how to promote their
own welfare during the stabilization period. This overview will highlight three key aspects of
promoting personal welfare: choose an employer that respects high personal and professional
values, find a mentor to show the way, and make a commitment to lifelong learning.
Workers take and keep jobs for a number of reasons. Galinsky, Bond, and Friedman
(1993) asked workers employed within the last five years to rate the important reasons for taking
the new position with the new employer. Workers rated the top five reasons as straightforward
communication at the workplace, the influence the job had on personal and family life, the
responsibilities of the job, the quality of the administration, and attributes of the supervisor.
About 35 percent of workers rated salary as a highly important reason for accepting their jobs. In
addition to asking appropriate questions during the job interview, potential employees can learn a
lot about an employer by investigating staff turnover or profiling characteristics of current
employees.
Mentors provide valuable assistance to new workers and to those trying to establish a
career. The roles they serve include coaching, protection, providing information, and sponsorship
(Whitely & Coetsier, 1993). Coaching helps to develop job competence and interpersonal skills.
As protectors, mentors help the new worker avoid pitfalls associated with political forces or
difficult co-workers. As sponsors, mentors help their protégé make important contacts to work
with influential people or advance to appropriately challenging roles. In each of these roles,
mentors provide information that the protégé would not be able to acquire independently.
Finding a mentor can be a tricky process, especially for women. Mentoring, however, does have
big payoffs including early career advancements, increased satisfaction with work, and overall
increased gratification with career.
Lifelong learning reflects the reality of employment expectancies of 40+ years, increased
longevity, and job obsolescence. As our society moves from an industrial to an information age,
workers will be required to adjust to changing job expectations and changing technology (Naisbitt,
1984). Two important issues to consider are the rate at which available information expands and the
speed at which information can be assessed. Technical and scientific information doubles every five
years. This fact alone explains the need to continue learning through all available mechanisms in
order to continue employment at a competitive level. Those who do not keep up face the threat of
decreased levels of employment (and pay) or unemployment.
Employment success depends on identifying good employers, learning from experienced
co-workers, and positioning to take advantage of learning opportunities, as they become
available. Success depends on flexibility and persistence to achieve and maintain early dreams of
a career.
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References
Galinsky, E., Bond, J. T., & Friedman, D. E. (1993). The national study of the changing workforce:
Highlights. New York: Families and Work Institute.
Naisbitt, J. (1984). Megatrends. New York: Warner Books.
Schaie, K. W., & Willis, S. L. (1996). Adult development and aging (4th ed.). New York: HarperCollins.
Whitely, W. T., & Coetsier, P. (1993). The relationship of career mentoring to early career outcomes.
Organization Studies, 14, 419–441.
Topic 12.2—Mothers and Their Powerful Sons
McCullough has proposed an interesting explanation for the cause of learning to want
achievement and power: Mother. McCullough examined the lives of many male leaders and
found their mother and her behavior to be a common thread among these men.

Douglas MacArthur’s mother Pinky accompanied Douglas to West Point. She set up
residence in a hotel across the street from campus for his full four-year tenure there.

Franklin D. Roosevelt’s mother, Sara, moved to Boston while Franklin attended
Harvard.

Frank Lloyd Wright’s mother, Anna, decided before Frank’s birth that he would be an
architect. She hung engravings of cathedrals in his nursery.

The mothers of Presidents Harry Truman and Lyndon B. Johnson taught them to read
before they were five years of age.
In these, and many other cases, McCullough pointed out that these mothers made their
sons the center of their lives. McCullough also pointed out that in all cases, the mothers had
weak or uninspiring husbands and dominant fathers who provided possible models for their
grandsons. McCullough believed that sons became these women’s vehicles to success.
McCullough offers insight from Freud: “A man who has been the indisputable favorite of his
mother keeps for life the feeling of a conqueror.”
You should point out to your students that these men grew up with only the best
education and resources. They were given the opportunities, support, and models to become all
that they could. Ask the class to supply additional examples (President Clinton? Newt
Gingrich?). Also ask the class to apply the idea to high-achieving women. Finally, be sure to
engage the class in a critique of McCullough’s method, and entertain a thorough analysis of the
limitations of his proof.
Reference
McCullough, D. (1980, March). Mama’s boys. Psychology Today, pp. 32–38.
Topic 12.3—The Rise and Fall of Fear of Success
Matina Horner achieved widespread recognition for initiating an investigation of a phenomenon
that many believed was a powerful explanation of achievement differences between men and
women: fear of success. Horner noted that up until the time of her work, women’s achievement
and motivation had been substantially ignored. In her attempt to develop norms on a projective
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measure for achievement, Horner found that women were much more likely to express motives
to avoid success than to achieve it. The work was instantly influential, even though (perhaps
predictably), subsequent criticism blunted its long-term impact.
Nevertheless, a lecture on the rise and fall of Horner’s work is a useful way to teach
about one way achievement motives are assessed, historical gender biases in the study of
achievement motivation, and progress that has been made in comparing male and female
achievement motives as a consequence of Horner’s work. A way to begin your lecture could be
to introduce one of the incomplete stories that Horner used to measure motivation: “At the end of
first-term finals, Anne (John) finds herself (himself) at the top of her (his) medical school class.”
Have your students write their own versions of how this story turned out, which they can then
compare to Horner’s and others’ findings.
Give examples of Horner’s findings (see the reference below). Sixty-six percent of women’s
story completions expressed fear of success in terms of fear of social rejection, worries about
womanhood, or denial that the success had actually occurred; only eight percent of males told similar
stories about John (presumably, really themselves). Horner argued that such an achievement
avoidance complex would go a long way toward explaining why women achieve less than men.
But her work did not go unchallenged. It was flawed, for example, on methodological
grounds. Men only wrote stories about a man, women stories about a woman. What would
happen if they wrote stories about the opposite sex? Such a manipulation is necessary because
subjects’ answers in Horner’s study may not have been true projections of their own motivations,
but rather stereotypes about success. For example, if men wrote stories about women similar to
women’s stories, there would be an alternative explanation for such stories.
Subsequent work also challenged the claim that men rarely show fear of success themes
in their stories. In one case, Lois Hoffman, in a better controlled study at the same university as
Horner did her work, found a proportion of fear of success stories among men that was actually
larger than for women.
Consult the sources listed below for more details about this work. Also, you can use your
students’ answers for an instant comparison to the findings that you have been discussing.
References
Hoffman, L. W. (1974). Fear of success in males and females: 1965 and 1971. Journal of Consulting and
Clinical Psychology, 42, 353–358;
Horner, M. S. (1969). Fail: Bright women. Psychology Today, 2, 36–38, 62.
CLASSROOM DISCUSSIONS AND ACTIVITIES
Discussion Topics
Discussion 12.1—1998–2008 Employment Projections
Projections for employment over the next decade were released by the U.S. Department of Labor
Statistics in November, 1999. Total employment is projected to increase by 14 percent, slower than
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the previous 17 percent between 1988–1998. These statistics promote knowledgeable career guidance, education and training programs management, and long-range employment trend analysis.
Projections are provided for industry employment and occupational employment. In the
category of industry, service-producing industries will represent almost all growth in jobs. Health
services, business services, social services, engineering management, and related services jobs
will employ 50 percent of nonfarm workers added to the economy between 1998–2008.
Manufacturing will employ slightly fewer workers in spite of increased productivity; currently,
manufacturing employs about 13 percent of workers and will decrease to 12 percent by 2008.
Construction jobs will increase slightly at about the same rate that manufacturing declines.
Occupational employment projections indicate that professional specialty areas will
increase by 5.3 million jobs. It will continue to be the fastest growing area of employment as it
was during 1988–1998 period. Service workers are expected to hold an additional 3.9 million
jobs. These two areas are expected to represent 45 percent of the total projected job growth over
the 1998–2008 period. The ten fastest growing occupations between 1998–2008:
Occupation
Computer engineers
Computer support specialists
Systems analysts
Database administrators
Desktop publishing specialists
Paralegals and legal assistants
Personal care and home health aids
Medical assistants
Social and human service assistants
Physician assistants
Percent Increase
108
102
94
77
73
62
58
58
53
48
Labor force changes are projected to increase by 12 percent, 2 percent less than the
projected increase in total employment. The labor force age 45 to 64 will grow fastest. The labor
force 25 to 34 years of age is expected to decline by 2.7 million. Asian and Hispanic labor forces
are projected to increase by 40 and 37 percent, respectively due to immigration and birthrate.
Black and Caucasian labor forces are expected to increase by 20 and 10 percent, respectively.
References
Bureau of Labor Statistics. (1999, November). Monthly Labor Review.
Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor at http://www.stats.bls.gov/
Discussion 12.2—Hottest Jobs
According to Julie Rawe, the 10 hottest jobs of 2000 plus are the following:
1.
Tissue Engineers—Man-made human tissue will be used to replace body pieces and parts
such as intestine, liver, and heart tissue.
2.
Gene Programmers—Genome maps will be able to be altered digitally, allowing programmers to rewrite genetic code to prevent genetically-based disease.
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3.
Pharmers—Farmers will become pharmers as they raise genetically engineered versions of
grain and livestock.
4.
Frankenfood Monitors—Any food will be available in ample quantities, but hybrids could
create problems with original food sources; who will make sure they don’t get out of hand?
5.
Data Miners—With the exponential increase in scientific and technical data, these people
will make sure that the information gets into the right hands.
6.
Hot-Line Handymen—Remote access diagnosticians will be needed for technophobes
needing assistance with home electronics.
7.
Virtual-Reality Actors—The demand for interactive stories will put writers and actors to
work creating dramas for audience participation.
8.
Narrowcasters—Advertisers will create messages just for you, enhance sales with olfactory
stimulation, and beam messages directly to the brain.
9.
Turing Testers—Are you talking to a person or a machine? Artificial intelligence will be
enhanced until consumers won’t be able to tell. (Proposed by Alan Turning in the 1950s)
10.
Knowledge Engineers—Knowledge and expertise will be encapsulated onto software.
Reference
Rawe, J. (2000, May 22). What will be the 10 hottest jobs? Time, 155, 72.
Discussion 12.3—Universal Performance Assessment
Adolescents often take jobs that do not have any apparent relevance to the careers they hope to
achieve. The following questions apply to any type of job by inquiring about the acceptability of
overall trainee performance and about vocational, social-vocational, and social skills
demonstrated on the job. Raters respond to the questions on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging
from 1 (below average workers) to 5 (equal to best workers). Consider these performance
questionnaire items:
Performance Questionnaire
 Are you satisfied with the employee’s work?
 How well does the worker complete tasks?
 Does the employee satisfy your performance standards?
The employee:
 Works independently
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
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


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



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Works at job consistently
Works at expected rate
Completes acceptable work
Carries out instructions
Provides timely information about absence, tardiness, or desired time off
Provides job-related information to other employees
Does not disrupt or interrupt others
Seeks clarification for instructions
Gets necessary information
Arrives at work on time
Anticipates what needs to be done next
Offers help to co-workers
Responds appropriately to criticism
Expresses appreciation to co-workers
Conversation does not interfere with work
Apologizes as necessary
Acknowledges what others are saying
Uses social amenities
Reference
Curl, R. M., & Hall, S. M. (1990). Put that person to work: A manual for implementers using the coworker transition model. Logan, UT: Utah State University.
Discussion 12.4—Interest Inventory
An important issue during early adulthood is the beginning of a career or at least a full-time job.
Individuals are engaged in training, education, or on-the-job opportunities that are leading them
to their first career or job choice. One way to help students understand the tasks that must be
completed at this stage is to ask them which occupations they find most appealing, and those that
are the least appealing. Each student should list at least three in each category.
After collecting the lists, make arrangements for someone from career development or
academic counseling to come in and administer the Strong Campbell Interest Inventory or some
other appropriate occupational interest measure. It may take some time to get the results back, so
the administration of the survey may need to be done early if you want to use the results as part
of a lecture or discussion. Once the results are back, give students their lists of occupational
favorites and least favorites back, and have them compare their choices with the choices
indicated by the survey. Talk about the similarities, the differences, and any surprises.
If you are unfamiliar with the use of an interest inventory, you may want to invite a
career counselor to assist with the interpretation of the results and handle any questions from
students.
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Reference
Temple, L. L. (1992). Instructor’s course planner to accompany life-span development (4th ed.) by J. W.
Santrock. Dubuque: William C. Brown Communications.
In-Class Activities
Activity 12.1—Identifying Personal Life Goals
Have students examine their life goals by doing the following exercise. Spend approximately
three minutes on each part to review this exercise. Each student needs four sheets of paper and
approximately 20 minutes to complete the exercise.
1.
At the top of the first paper write: What are my goals for my life? Answer this question.
2.
At the top of the second paper write: What do I want to do for the next three years? Answer
this question.
3.
At the top of the third paper write: If I had only six months, how would I choose to live my
life? Answer this question.
4.
Look over your three sets of answers.
5.
At the top of the fourth paper write: What are my three most important goals? Answer this
question.
What kinds of goals (i.e., personal, career, family, community, social, or spiritual) did
you choose? Were the same goals present on all your lists? How would your lists be different if
you had done this exercise five years ago?
Reference
Simons, J. A., Irwin, D. B. & Drinnin, B. A. (1987). Instructor’s Manual to accompany Psychology: The
search for understanding. St. Paul: West Publishing.
Activity 12.2—Styles of Expressing Achievement
After reading about achievement, you may be able to estimate your own achievement need
(nAch) level. The three main styles of expressing achievement (and each of these has three
substyles) are the direct style, the instrumental style, and the relational style. In the direct
achievement style, individuals confront tasks directly and want to achieve tasks through their
own efforts. In the instrumental achievement style, individuals achieve by promoting themselves
or others. In the relational achievement style, individuals achieve by contributing to the
accomplishments of others (Lipman-Blumen et al., 1983).
Your preferences for different achievement styles developed throughout childhood and
adolescence, although they can be modified during the adult years. Gender roles are one
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significant influence on achievement style preferences. More males are socialized to have a
direct achievement style and more females are socialized to have a relational achievement style.
Family members, friends, and cultural messages further shape and differentiate your
achievement choices.
Rate each of the substyles for how typical they are of your own achievement patterns
(adapted from Lipman-Blumen et al., 1983). Use a 0 if the style is very atypical of you, a 1 if you
occasionally use the style, a 2 if you believe you are average in this pattern of behavior, and a 3
if you think that you often use the particular style. After rating the substyles, go back and rank
the three major styles from 1 (most typical for you) to 3 (least typical for you). The worksheet is
also available in “Student Handouts.”
Rank
_____
_____
_____
Rate
Direct Style—I am an individual who likes to achieve and accomplish tasks by my own efforts. I confront tasks
directly.
_____
Intrinsic Substyle—I tend to compare myself to some standard of performance excellence. For example,
I am satisfied with A’s and B’s and would like to make the Dean’s list. I like to see “well written” on a
paper I have done. I try to do work that meets the high standards set by my boss.
_____
Competitive Substyle—I tend to express achievement by trying to do better than others. For example: I
like to get grades that are higher than other students in the class. It is as important to win an athletic
competition as it is to do well. I like to hear that my ideas are better than others.
_____
Power Substyle—I like to be in charge of and have control over others in order to accomplish
achievement goals. For example, I would like to organize and lead a study group in order to improve my
grades. I would like to be chairperson of a student organization. I would like a career in management or
other area in which I am in charge of other personnel.
Instrumental Style—I tend to use others and myself as a way to meet my achievement goals.
_____
Personal Substyle—I often achieve by making use of my status, influence, reputation, and personal
characteristics. For example, I try to dress for success in order to make a good impression on the people
with whom I work. I would like to earn a doctorate degree because I think I would be better able to meet
my goals if I could sign Ph.D. after my name. I would like to be on the dean’s list or an officer in state
organizations because this would help me achieve more.
_____
Social Substyle—I tend to use networking to achieve my goals. For example: I plan to join a fraternity or
sorority because other members can provide lifelong social and career connections. I think it is
important to belong to lots of organizations because you meet people who are able to help you get things
accomplished. I try to associate socially with people I admire and with whom I hope to work.
_____
Reliant Substyle—I tend to achieve by depending on others for direction. For example, before studying
or writing papers I usually ask instructors and classmates what I should do and how I should do it. I
think it’s important to get lots of input and feedback from others in order to know how to work on a task
correctly. I often get advice on what to do from others rather than deciding goals by myself.
Relational Style—I tend to achieve by contributing to the accomplishments of other persons.
_____
Collaborative Substyle—I tend to achieve through group effort that includes the sharing of both
responsibility and credit. For example, I prefer classes in which projects are done in small groups with
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shared responsibilities and a common grade. I would rather co-author a paper than write alone. I like
working on issues with a group of peers.
_____
Contributory Substyle—I tend to play a secondary role of helping others to achieve. For example, I
would be willing to work and financially support a spouse while he or she went to college. I like to offer
suggestions in committees, but I would not enjoy being the chairperson of the committee. I would enjoy
playing supportive roles in arenas such as politics and charitable organizations.
_____
Vicarious Substyle—I tend to satisfy my own achievement needs by identifying with the success of
other persons who are important to me. For example: I get a lot of school pride when our athletic teams
win. I would just as soon help my offspring to accomplish something important as achieve that
accomplishment myself. It is very satisfying to see a co-worker have a great success—I feel like I
identify with the co-worker’s achievements.
When you are finished with your rankings, evaluate how you feel about your individual
pattern. Are you able to work on achievement in ways that are satisfying to you? How would you
change school, work, and family situations to better fit your needs? Have you chosen career
goals that will enable you to achieve in ways that fit your pattern? What kinds of changes would
you like to make in your achievement styles? What kinds of changes have occurred over your
life so far? Regardless of your current achievement styles, which substyle do you wish was your
most prominent style? Can you identify achievement styles of your family members? Among
your friends? Do you have similar or dissimilar styles to family and friends? How do you think
cultural and worldwide influences affect the prominence of different types of achievement styles
from generation to generation?
Reference
Lipman-Blumen, J., Handley-Isakin, A. & Leavitt, H. J. (1983). Achieving styles in men and women: A
model, an instrument, and some findings. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement
motives: Psychological and sociological approaches. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.
Critical Thinking Exercises
Exercise 12.1—Theoretical Foundations of Motivation
There are a variety of approaches to understanding motivation, but in terms of the perspectives
outlined in Chapter 2 of Adolescence, one general perspective seems to have generated more
theories than any other. Which is it? Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the
best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate.
A.
B.
C.
psychoanalytic
cognitive
learning
D.
E.
ecological
eclectic
Exercise 12.2—Explanations of Career Choice
Both Ginzberg and Super have proposed developmental theories of career choice that involve
stages of development. Some of their stages appear quite similar. Of the following pairs, which
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one represents two stages that describe roughly the same step in career choice? Circle the letter
of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is
not as appropriate.
A.
B.
C.
fantasy: crystallization
tentative: crystallization
tentative: specification
D.
E.
realistic: specification
realistic: implementation
Exercise 12.3—Achievement by Adolescents of Diverse Ethnic Backgrounds
Santrock indicates that research on ethnic minority adolescents’ achievement has been beset by
conceptual and methodological problems that make it difficult to distinguish between ethnic
differences and socioeconomic differences. Of the following statements that figure in his
criticism, which statement represents an assumption that contemporary researchers have
challenged, rather than an inference or an observation? Circle the letter of the best answer,
explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate.
A.
The diversity that exists among ethnic minority adolescents is evident in their achievement.
B.
The relative impact of ethnicity and socioeconomic status on achievement can be analyzed
separately.
C.
Ethnic minority individuals who have low achievement should be viewed as different, not
deficient.
D.
Middle class African-American children have achievement expectations that are as high as
middle class White children’s expectations.
E.
A majority of minority students in the United States are in attendance at school districts
within the 50 largest nationwide.
Answer Key for Critical Thinking Exercises
Exercise 12.1
A. This is not the best answer. Only one approach, the achievement motivation approach,
resembles a psychoanalytic approach, in that it focuses on achievement motivation as a
personality construct. But the bases of these approaches are related to a psychoanalytic
approach only remotely, if at all.
B.
This is the best answer. The majority of the theories seem to have a cognitive basis.
Attribution theories are about causes people attribute to their behavior, intrinsic/extrinsic
motivational constructs refer to desires to be competent and how they interact with reward,
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and the mastery/helpless distinction refers again to attributions people make about their
ability to succeed.
C.
This is not the best answer. Learning concepts appear to play a role in the analysis of
intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation, but other ideas and theories draw on either personality
or cognitive constructs.
D.
This is not the best answer. The Ethnicity and Culture section involves an analysis of the
influence of social systems adolescents inhabit and how the interactions of these systems
influence achievement motivation. These explanations clearly are overshadowed by the
cognitive approach.
E.
This is not the best answer. The main reason for not choosing this alternative is that the
cognitive perspective seems to have generated more theories than the others. One could
certainly describe the area as eclectic, however.
Exercise 12.2
A. This is not the best answer. Career ideas during the fantasy period have nothing to do with
reality, whereas the decisions made during crystallization increasingly are accurate
assessments of personal attributes related to a career self-concept.
B.
This is not the best answer. One reason is that the tentative period begins earlier. Another
reason is that there is less focus on actual career choices in the tentative stage as compared
to the crystallization stage.
C.
This is not the best answer. The reasons are stronger versions of the reasons given for
rejecting (B).
D.
This is the best answer. First, these stages occur at about the same time. More importantly,
they are most similar because they both involve narrowing career choices to fit an
increasingly firm and specific sense of a match between one’s interests, skills, values, and a
specific career.
E.
This is not the best answer. Again, one reason is that these stages are said to occur at
different times. More importantly, the realistic period includes a period of narrowing
choices and preparing for a career, whereas implementation is the time when adolescents
(or young adults) begin working at a specific job.
Exercise 12.3
A. This is not the best answer. This is an inference supported by an example of diversity
within the Asian American student population. Many students have strong academic
performance whereas others demonstrate lower levels of achievement and motivation.
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B.
This is the best answer. This is an assumption. Graham’s research is cited as showing
stronger differences in the impact of socioeconomic status than ethnicity, but does not
suggest that the two factors do not overlap. Most researchers agree that socioeconomic
status is usually confounded with ethnicity in studies of ethnic minorities.
C.
This is not the best answer. This is an inference, based on the idea that low achievement
expectations mean the same thing in ethnic minority youth as they mean in White majority
youth.
D.
This is not the best answer. This is an observation that was measured in the work by Sandra
Graham.
E.
This is not the best answer. This is an observation based on the information in the chapter
that over 33 percent of African Americans and 33 percent of Latinos attended school in the
47 largest school districts in the United States.
Short Scenarios
Scenario 12.1
Lanny dislikes the group projects more than anything else about the class requirements. Take this
group he is involved with on this project—four people with four completely different types of
motivation. The one guy, Paul, has said he doesn’t really care about the amount of time it takes,
he is enthusiastic, and he wants to be sure the research project is done right. (Come on Paul—get
a life!) Then there’s Vivian who has said for about the tenth time that she doesn’t know anything
about doing interviews or how to figure out reliability. (She’ll be a lot of help!) Harriet is very
confident that they will find just the subjects they need and has made some good suggestions for
dividing up the work (There is hope!) All Lanny cares about is getting it done in a reasonable
amount of time and getting an “A” on the project. He has to have all A’s this semester to get the
3.75 GPA he needs to bag an acceptance to graduate school.

Lanny is not demonstrating a great deal of flexibility, tolerance of ambiguity, or
appreciation for the diversity of the group members or their potential contributions.

Paul is demonstrating a mastery orientation by showing concern for excellent
performance, and displaying a positive affect.

Vivian is demonstrating a helpless orientation. In order to help her be successful,
someone in the group will need to break down the project into small steps, identify
pieces she is comfortable doing independently, and encourage her efforts.

Harriet has a mastery orientation, and demonstrates a high level of self-efficacy.

Lanny is demonstrating a performance orientation, very concerned with reaching a
positive outcome, but not interested in the process.
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
Lanny is demonstrating a level of anxiety that may be due to concerns about
achieving the desired outcome under the conditions of working in this group. This
may be an unreasonable fear, however, since there are three other group members
who want to succeed.

Lanny may be exhibiting a maladaptive failure-avoiding strategy, nonperformance, as
an excuse for his lack of skill at participating in group activities.
Scenario 12.2
Michelle remembers when she believed she could do anything—she even considered buying her
own fishing boat and living on the ocean. Then she volunteered to help in a local campaign and
realized that it was exciting to work with a lot of people who have a similar passion. She also
visited New York on her high school senior trip and decided that she likes the fast pace of the
city. Taking cabs instead of driving, living in the city instead of the suburbs, and dressing for
concerts instead of hanging out at the bars fit who she is. As a business major in college, she met
a few people who shared her enthusiasm for corporate America and discovered that lots of
people make it work. She has just gotten a job with a major technology company. After a couple
of years of work in the real world, she may decide to go to law school. She wonders how far up
the corporate ladder she can go or whether she will be partner at a large firm. Either one would
give her the excitement in her life that she desperately requires to feel alive!

Michelle’s belief that she could do anything is an example of Ginzberg’s fantasy stage.

Michelle changed her perspective about her employment interests from the solitary life
on the ocean to a commitment as a campaign team member (a possible continuation
of the fantasy stage).

As Michelle worked on the campaign, she realized that she enjoyed being with a
group of people who were similarly committed to a project or goal, i.e., the tentative
stage according to Ginzberg or the crystalization stage according to Super.

Her exposure to New York helped Michelle move closer to the decision that she
wanted to work as part of a larger group.

Michelle attended college with a major in business to get closer to her goal of living
in the city and working at a large corporation—Super’s specification stage.

Entering the job market is an example of Super’s implementation stage.

According to Holland’s theory, Michelle demonstrates an enterprising personality
type. Politics and management are two positions that are exemplary of this type of
personality.
Scenario 12.3
Jeannie celebrated her birthday a little early this year and bought a new outfit for her birthday
dinner. Usually this approach worked out fine, but this year everyone gave her presents instead
of money. She wasn’t planning on working through the winter, but now she is working at a
clothing store. Her first summer job was at a fast food restaurant. She made quite a bit of money,
but it wasn’t very glamorous. Last summer she worked for a garden center and lawn service. She
IM 12 | 18
loved the work, but was exhausted most of the time. The retail job should work out better now
that she is back in school. Having a job has allowed Jeannie to make her own choices about
clothes and entertainment, but these positions certainly aren’t things she would do long term.
After finishing college, she wants to be able to set her own hours and be flexible enough to have
children and a career. Her mom was a teacher so family schedules worked together. Her dad
worked for a business that required him to be there all of the time. She really liked working with
the landscape architects when she worked for the lawn service—maybe landscape architecture
work or horticulture. She will talk to one of the architects she met last summer to learn more
about it.

Jeannie is working at a retail job, as do 20 percent of working adolescents.

Her first job was as a fast food worker, typical of 17 percent of adolescents;
McDonald’s is the single largest employer of teenagers.

As an unskilled laborer with the lawn service, she represented 10 percent of working
adolescents.

The benefits of the job are that it gives her autonomy from her parents in making
clothing purchases and choosing to join her friends for expensive entertainment more
frequently than when she depended on spending money from her parents.

Jeannie has the goal of completing college (90 percent of adolescents have a similar
goal) and having a flexible professional career.

Jeannie is assessing the expectations and limitations of the careers her parents chose.

Her exposure with the lawn service gave her an opportunity to learn about landscaping as a profession.

Jeannie recognizes that more experience with the landscape architect may be helpful
in making a career choice.
CURRENT RESEARCH ARTICLES
Article 12.1—Adolescent Views of Work and Leisure
Youths begin to consider choices for future roles during their adolescence. Sundberg and Tyler
(1970) identified differences between adolescents in the Netherlands and the United States that
reflected ideas about future roles in employment and leisure. Twenty-five years later, both
countries have undergone major changes in the roles of men and women, with marked decreases
in birthrate and increased participation by women of all ages in the workforce. The current
investigation was designed to replicate the Sundberg and Tyler study in the United States and the
Netherlands to determine the effects of societal change on 14- and 15-year-olds awareness of
employment and leisure opportunities and preferences.
Participants included 522 adolescents; 14- and 15-year-olds from three schools in the
Netherlands and two Midwestern U.S. Schools. Students were enrolled in three educational
tracks that reflected honors, remedial, and regular students. About half of the students from both
IM 12 | 19
countries were in college preparatory classes. The current sample was matched to the original
1970 published Dutch and U.S. samples on age, sex, and educational level.
Two measures were used to assess participants’ awareness and preferences for work and
leisure activities. First, participants were asked to list all of the occupations that they could think
of and to place a check mark by those that they believed to be appropriate for themselves. The
same procedure was followed for leisure activities. Second, participants were randomly assigned
to draw a picture of a man or a woman engaging in an activity and to write an explanation on the
picture. Stiles, Gibbons, and Schnellmann’s (1988) guidelines were used for scoring
representations of work, leisure, helping others, sexual emphasis, and gender role stereotyping.
Comments on the drawings were scored for mentioning, appearance, money, achievement,
personal qualities, and reflections of feminine or masculine.
The 1993 results were strikingly different from those reported in the 1970 study. In the
current study, adolescents in the Netherlands listed more occupations than were listed by
adolescents in the United States Girls listed more occupations than boys; boys identified more
occupations as possibilities than did girls. More leisure activities were listed by adolescents in
the Netherlands than by those in the United States, and by more girls than boys. Girls in the
Netherlands listed the greatest number of leisure activities and identified the greatest number as
possible for themselves.
Drawings of the ideal person at work or taking part in leisure activities showed that
significantly more U.S. than Dutch adolescents, and significantly more girls than boys, drew the
ideal person at work. U.S. adolescents drew gender role stereotypes significantly more often than
did Dutch adolescents. More U.S. than Dutch adolescents drew the person helping someone.
U.S. adolescents depicted achievement and success more often than did Dutch adolescents.
Dutch adolescents were more likely to comment about the physical characteristics of the person.
Adolescents from the Netherlands described internal qualities of the ideal person more often;
feminine inner qualities were listed by Dutch adolescents more often than by U.S. adolescents.
The results during the 1970 study indicated that U.S. adolescents were oriented toward
leisure tasks more than Dutch adolescents. During the past 25 years, the cultural trend in the
Netherlands has been that work is becoming less important and private lives more important than
in the past. Currently, Dutch adolescents indicated that they associate adulthood with work,
dullness, and stagnation. In the United States currently, adolescents drew pictures of the ideal
person working, indicating a belief that work is associated with success, money, and “the good
life.” Materialism was depicted by cars and clothes, success by jobs and families, and other
depictions indicated that the ideal person “has it all.” Female adolescents in the United States
clearly showed women in dual roles with 48 girls showing women at work compared to 6 girls in
the Netherlands where new patterns have not yet emerged. In both countries, males depicted
women as sex objects. The U.S. adolescents reflected a masculine image of the country as one
that emphasizes ambition, earnings, and greater gender role differentiation. Dutch adolescents
were more likely to mention inner qualities of caring and kindness. In general, U.S. adolescents
appear to glamorize work whereas Dutch adolescents place a high value on quality of life.
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Reference
Stiles, D. A.; Gibbons, J. L., & Peters, E. (1993). Adolescents’ views of work and leisure in The Netherlands
and the United States. Adolescence, 28, 473–489.
Article 12.2—Work Access in Traumatic Brain Injury
Work access and work return remain challenging issues for individuals with traumatic brain
injury (TBI). Individuals with TBI represent some of the most difficult cases in rehabilitation. At
two years post injury, fewer than 40 percent of those with severe injuries (Glasgow Coma Scale
8 and below) return to work, 67 percent of those with moderate injuries (Glasgow Coma Scale 9
to 12), and 80 percent of those with mild injuries (Glasgow Coma Scale 13 to 15). Controversy
over standardized treatment and outcome measures make it difficult to determine comparability
in outcome. Some analyses can be made, however, of treatment approaches relative to the impact
of TBI on work return and easier versus harder to place individuals within the program. The
successful application of job placement strategies to individuals with traumatic brain injury
suggests their suitability for application to any difficult to place client requiring rehabilitation
services.
Individuals with TBI require individualized assessment and intervention strategies; no
single model has shown to be effective across all clients with TBI. Before placement begins, a
thorough assessment should include neuropsychological assessment, specific work goal
information, financial status, and emotional-interpersonal functioning. Neuropsychological
assessments determine the individual’s relative strengths and weaknesses through formal
assessment and criterion-based job tryouts. Specific work variables to consider include the
individual’s work goals, job complexity, the client’s time on the job prior to injury, and the
receptivity of the employer to establishing a mentoring relationship. Financial status refers to the
requirement for careful evaluation of the client’s ability to benefit from employment versus the
loss of Social Security and other subsidies necessary to support themselves and dependents
following TBI. Provided client and rehabilitation counselor affirm the decision to begin job
placement and training, several placement models have been investigated to determine their
applicability to individuals with mild, moderate, or severe brain injury.

Job Tryout Prior to Model Choice—A job tryout gives individuals with TBI and
rehabilitation counselors an opportunity to determine the appropriateness of an
employment choice and the level of support required by the individual.

Model 1: Office-Based Advisement and Counseling—Individuals with mild to
moderate injuries can benefit from a traditional vocational guidance model that assists
with the job search through instruction in using job seeking clubs, automated job
lines, resumé preparation, and interview skills.

Model 2: Selective Placement by the Agency—The rehabilitation agency staff
member provides a brokering type service in which the counselor finds the job,
contracts for additional on-the-job training if necessary, arranges for co-worker
mentoring, and arranges accommodations for work-related impairment.
IM 12 | 21

Model 3: Agency-Generated Job Site Support—The rehabilitation agency identifies
a community member who can assist in job training as a paid mentor, contracts with
the employer for a job sharing arrangement, or arranges for a job coach.

Model 4: Natural Support in the Workplace—Co-workers are prepared to provide
job training and implement maintenance strategies with individuals requiring
moderate to high levels of support initially, but are likely to be able to maintain the
job with intermittent co-worker support.
A review of 51 clients showed that with increasing cognitive impairment on intelligence
and neuropsychological testing, increasing levels of guidance, employment brokerage, and onthe-job support in the form of the co-worker as trainer were required. The need for co-worker as
trainer support also reflected the level of employment to which the individual with TBI was
trying to return (architect, computer database manager, or building remodel co-owner). The
summary does not support a conclusion that any one approach is better than another, but that
diversity in approaches allows individuals with TBI to receive the individualized rehabilitation
package that fit their requirements.
Reference
Fraser, R. T.; Cook, R.; Clemmons, D. C., & Curl, R. M. (1997). Work access in traumatic brain injury
rehabilitation: A perspective for the physiatrist and rehabilitation team. Physical Medicine and
Rehabilitation Clinics of North America, 8, 371–387.
STUDENT RESEARCH PROJECTS
Research Project 12.1—Comparing Career Sequences
Objective. Students will identify differences in motivation, strategies of career development, and
social contexts that have influenced individuals’ current positions and preferences in employment.
Length/Type of Activity. Out-of-class activity; variable.
Directions. Identify one or more individuals for each of the cohort groups representing
individuals aged 20 to 25 years, 30 to 35 years, 40 to 45 years, and 50 to 55 years of age. (Spaces
in age help guarantee that differences in patterns will be identified across cohorts.) Create a
questionnaire that can be administered in a paper-and-pencil format or by personal interview.
Questions may be generated to respond to your specific interests or to issues currently of interest
in the employment research literature. Focus on at least some of the questions toward major
sections in the chapter. Here are a few examples:
1.
When you were in high school, what jobs or careers did you think about pursuing?
2.
What influenced those choices? (check all that apply)
 financial ability
 past educational experience
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





family circumstances
parents
peers
educational opportunities
gender
ethnicity
3.
What educational experience did you have to begin working at each of the jobs you have
had?
4.
Has/Have your employer(s) paid for subsequent educational preparation?
5.
What influenced you to stay at or leave each of the jobs?
6.
How many hours per week do you typically work?
7.
Are you part of the management at your business? If yes, what level of management
describes your position?
8.
What are your favorite three leisure activities?
How often do you engage in these activities?
9.
What would you have done differently if you had all options available to you?
10.
When do you intend to retire? What will you do (work/leisure) during retirement?
Analysis. What do the responses to your questionnaire suggest?
1.
Did subjects follow jobs or careers identified during high school?
2.
What were the major influences for individual’s career choices?
3.
Were outcome differences characterized within cohort groups?
4.
Did you identify distinct patterns in educational or career development between the
cohorts?
5.
Did you identify patterns reflective of the age of the respondent?
Wrap-Up. Write a five-page technical paper to explain the research project and be prepared to
give an oral report in class.
Research Project 12.2—Identifying Occupations
Objective. Students will understand the diversity of occupations available to individuals who
have not completed high school, and those who have completed high school, college, and
advanced programs.
Type/Length of Activity. Internet search; 1 to 2 hours.
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Directions. Individuals, states, and the federal government have an interest in getting and
keeping people employed. As a result, a great deal of information about occupations and related
topics is available on the World Wide Web. Compile information on the following topics using
at least two search engines.
1.
Occupational clusters and job titles
2.
Assessment inventories for interest and abilities
3.
Career options based on interest
4.
Preparation, qualifications, and licensure requirements for specific careers
5.
Employer types (public, private, or self-employed) for specific careers
6.
Likelihood of job obsolescence for specific careers
7.
Typical salary ranges for specific careers
8.
Identify the fastest growing occupations
9.
Identify employment projections for the future
10.
The best sites to help people investigate job options
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Wrap-Up. How many occupations were identified? How many and what types of jobs were
available to individuals with and without high school, college, and advanced-program degrees?
How many occupations were unfamiliar? Were qualifications higher or lower than expected? Are
final career decisions likely to be based on (a) the amount of money one will earn or (b) the
opportunity to make a contribution to society?
ESSAY QUESTIONS
Review the guidelines for “Answering Essay Questions” before students respond to these
questions.
1.
Explain why adolescence is a critical juncture in achievement. Indicate circumstances and
experiences that can promote or inhibit a commitment to achievement at this time in life.
2.
Compare and contrast any two approaches to understanding motivation. How are these
approaches used to understand achievement among adolescents?
3.
What are mastery, helpless, and performance orientations? How do they relate to intrinsic
motivation, attribution, and self-efficacy?
4.
How do goals influence adolescent achievement and what types of goals should they set?
5.
What do studies of ethnic minorities in the United States and adolescents in other cultures
suggest about cultural influences on achievement motivation?
6.
List three groups of hard-to-motivate students likely to be identified in high school classes
and describe characteristic patterns of behavior they demonstrate.
7.
Compare and contrast any two theories of career development; explain how these theories
would be applied to counsel adolescents about careers.
8.
How do social contexts of socioeconomic status, parental and peer standards, schools, and
gender influence adolescent career choice?
9.
What were the research results that influenced educators to question the value of adolescent
employment?
10.
List and describe the William T. Grant Foundation Commission recommendations for
facilitating adolescents’ transition from school to work.
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References
Albom, M. (1997). Tuesdays with Morrie. An old man, a young man and life’s greatest lesson. New
York: Bantom.
Buckingham, M., & Clifton, D. O. (2001). Now, discover your strengths. New York: The Free Press.
Elkind, D. (2001). The hurried child: Growing up too fast too soon. New York: Perseus Publishing.
VIDEO
Balancing Work and School (VAD)
Overview
About 80 percent of U.S. undergraduate students work while they are in college. Most of
these working students identify themselves as primarily students, but a substantial minority
identify themselves as workers who take college classes. Working, at least part-time, is a
necessity for many students who need to support themselves, especially if they also have a
spouse and children. But working can restrict students’ opportunities to learn and negatively
influence grades. One recent national study found that as the number of hours worked per week
increased, grades suffered and the number of classes, class choice, and library access became
more limited. Other research has found that as the number of hours college students work
increases, the more likely they are to drop out of college. Thus, college students need to carefully
examine the number of hours they work and the extent the work is having a negative impact on
their college success. For many students, the alternative to work is borrowing to pay for
education. Borrowing can leave students with considerable debt, but working long hours reduces
the amount of time students have for studying and can decrease the likelihood that these students
will complete their college degree.
In this segment, 21-year-old Joel and his wife, Andrea, also 21, discuss how they balance
work, school, and parenting. They have one child and are expecting a second one.
Pre-Test
1. According to the information in your textbook, most of the college students who work are
a. men.
Incorrect. The profile of the working student is not characterized by gender.
b. women.
Incorrect. The profile of the working student is not characterized by gender.
c. principally students; their focus is on college with their identity as workers being
secondary.
Correct. The majority identify themselves as primarily students.
d. professionals with full-time jobs who take college courses.
Incorrect. This is a substantial minority of working college students.
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Post-Test
1. Given Joel’s and Andrea’s description of their daily schedules, and given what your textbook
tells you about the importance of a college education and the effects of working on college
student success, which of the following would you advise them to do?
a. Consider taking out substantial student loans so that they can work fewer hours.
Correct. Incurring debt is burdensome, but it is likely to pay off in the long run.
b. Drop out of school and return when their children are in middle school or high school.
Incorrect. Young parents who postpone their education usually do not catch up financially to
those who completed their education at a young age.
c. Continue doing just what they are doing.
Incorrect. Balancing work, school, and child care on such a full schedule is unlikely to lead to
long-term success and satisfaction.
d. Drop out of school every other semester to work full-time, then return to school the
following semester, then drop out again, etc.
Incorrect. This pattern is unlikely to result in student success and satisfaction.
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