CHAPTER 2
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
In this chapter, the writer gives the theoretical descriptions from the viewpoint of
experts which related to this research. They are Production of Speech Sound, English
Vowels, Diphthong, Triphthong, and previous studies of Production and Perception of
English Vowels.
2.1.
Production of Speech Sound
According to Roach (2000, p. 8-10), human speech is produced by the organs
presented in Figure 1. The sounds that human made are the result of muscle contracting.
Almost all speech sounds were made by all the muscle that we use for breathing in the
chest. First, the air will pass through the larynx, then vocal tract, and ends at the mouth
and nostrils.
Figure 1. The Articulators by Peter
Roach, 2000)
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Here are the explanations about the articulators:
a.
Pharynx
Pharynx is a tube which is located above the larynx and it is 7 cm long in women
and 8 cm long in men. Pharynx has two parts, the first part is located at the back
of the mouth and the second part is at the beginning of the way to nasal cavity.
(Nasal cavity is located behind the nose).
b.
Velum or Soft Palate
Soft palate can be touched by tongue if we make sounds /k/ and /g/.
Automatically the tongue makes contact with the lower side of the velum. Velum
allows air to pass through the nose and mouth.
c.
Hard Palate
Hard palate is also called as roof of the mouth and it can be touched with tongue.
d.
Alveolar Ridge
Alveolar Ridge is located behind the upper teeth and it is covered with little
ridges. Sounds that can be pronounced are /t/ and /d/ and it is called alveolar.
e.
Tongue
Tongue is divided into five parts. See figure 2 to see the parts of the tongue.
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Figure 2. Subdivisions of Tongue by Peter Roach, 2000)
f.
Teeth (upper and lower)
Teeth are located behind the lips. Many speech sounds are made when the tongue
is in contact with upper teeth and it is called Dental.
g.
Lips
Sounds that can be made with lips such as /p, b, f, v, and u/. When lips are
touching each other, the sounds that come out called Bilabial while the lips
touched the teeth, it is called Labiodental.
2.2.
Vowel
Since the study is about one of the English vowels type, first, the writer will give
explanation about English vowels based on the experts. Roach (2000, p. 10) states, “The
most common view is that vowels are sounds in which there is no obstruction to the flow
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of air as it passes from the larynx to the lips.” Ladefoged (2005, p. 201) states, “Vowel
is a sound at a center of syllable in which there is no obstruction of the vocal tract.”
According to Roach (2000, p. 14), lip rounding is one of the most easily
classified vowel quality. There are three shapes and lips position that are considered as
vowel. (1) Rounded. The corners of the lips are brought towards each other and the lips
pushed forwards. Just like the sound /u/. (2) Spread. The lips are forming like a smile.
Just like in the sound /i/. (3) Neutral. The lips are both rounded or spread. Like when
people say “er”.
Todd (1987, p. 30-33) states, there are 20 vowels in British English language
which divided to 12 monotphongs. The 12 monopthongs are /i/, /ɪ/, /ɛ/, /æ/, /ɑ/, /ɒ/, /ɔ/,
/ʊ/, /u/, /ʌ/, /ɜ/, and /ə/.
Figure 3. The positions of the 12 Monophthongs by Loreto Todd, 1987)
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According to Roach (2000, p. 13-15, 18-19), /ɪ/, /e/, /æ/, /ʌ/, /ɒ/, and /ʊ/ are
English short vowels, while /i:/, /ɜː/, /ɑ:/, /ɔ:/ and /u:/ are English long vowels. For the
sound /a/, it is included as Primary cardinal vowel which means vowels that are most
familiar to the speakers and cannot stand independently.
Figure 4. English Short and Long
Vowels
(Taken
from
English
Phonetics and Phonology by Peter
Roach)
2.3.
English Vowels
In this research, the writer only focuses on some vowels that are used in
Triphthong sounds. There are /e/, /ɪ/, /ə/, /ʊ/, /ɔ/, and /a/. Explanations of each vowel are
below based on Roach (2000), Zapata (2009) Akmajian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish
(2001) and Todd (1987):
1.
/e/
This is a mid front unrounded vowel. To produce this vowel, the lips must be
slightly spread and wide. The front of the tongue must be between the half-open
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and half-close positions. The tongue is tense. Words containing this type of
vowel are get, men, merry, etc.
2.
/ɪ/
This is a close front unrounded vowel. To produce this vowel, the tongue tip
must be behind the lower teeth. The center of the tongue is nearer to center
mouth in a half-close position. The lips are loosely spread. Words containing this
type of vowel are bit, pin, sit, etc.
3.
/ə/
This is a mid central unrounded vowel. This vowel is also called as ‘schwa’. To
produce this vowel, the position of the tongue between half-open and half-close.
The tongue tip position is behind the lower teeth. The lips are in a neutral
position. Words containing this type of vowel are ago, rose, comma, etc.
4.
/ʊ/
This is a close back rounded vowel. To produce this vowel, the lips must be in a
round position. The center part of the tongue is raised to half-close position.
Words containing this type of vowel are put, book, full, etc.
5.
/ɔ/
This is a mid back rounded vowel. To produce this vowel, the lips must be in a
medium round position. The tongue is raised between the half-open and halfclose positions. Words containing this type of vowel are all, saw, raw, etc.
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6.
/a/
This is open front unrounded vowel and included as cardinal vowel. This vowel
is unable to stand independently and needs another vowel. This type of vowel is
only for Diphthong and Triphthong because both of them have more than one
vowel to be pronounced. To produce this vowel, the tongue position is at the
bottom of the mouth and below the lower teeth. The jaw is open when pronounce
this vowel. Words containing this type of vowel are light, time, etc.
2.4.
Diphthong
Roach (2000, p. 20) states, “RP has a large number of Diphthongs, sounds which
consist of movement or glide from one vowel to another.” According to Dardjowidjojo
(2009, p. 33), Diphthong is a combination of two vowels which belong to the same
syllable and the stress must be on the first vowel. Fromkin, V., et al (2001, p. 693) state
that Diphthong is “Vowel represented as sequence of vowel symbols because the tongue
and / or lips move from one position to another.”
Roach (2000, p. 20-22) divides Diphthongs to 8 types which divided into the
centring and closing part. Centring part is subdivided to three Diphthongs which ended
with /ə/. They are /ɪə/, /eə/, and /ʊə/. Closing part is subdivided to five Diphthongs
which ended with /ɪ/ (/eɪ/, /aɪ/, and /ɔɪ/) and /ʊ/ (/əʊ/ and /aʊ/).
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Figure 5. Diphthong by Peter Roach, 2000)
Examples of Diphthong in words:
1.
/ɪə/
in the words ‘ear’, ‘fear’, ‘fierce’, etc.
2.
/eə/
in the words ‘aired’, ‘cairn’, ‘scare’, etc.
3.
/ʊə/
in the words ‘during’, ‘cure’, ‘tour’, etc.
4.
/eɪ/
in the words ‘pain’, ‘bait’, ‘laser’, etc.
5.
/aɪ/
in the words ‘light’, ‘time’, ‘buy’, etc.
6.
/ɔɪ/
in the words ‘coil’, ‘boil’, ‘voice’, etc.
7.
/əʊ/
in the words ‘load’, ‘boat’, ‘go’, etc.
8.
/aʊ/
in the words ‘out’, ‘cow’, ‘house’, etc.
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2.5.
Triphthong
Dardjowodjojo (2009, p. 33) states, “Occasionally we also have Triphthongs,
that is, combination of three vowels within a syllable.” According to Roach (2000, p.
23), Triphthong is type of vowel that most complex, difficult to understand and
recognize because it is all produced rapidly and without interruption. It can be seen that
Triphthong made of 5 Diphthongs with /ə/ added on the end.
1.
/eɪ/ + /ə/ = /eɪə/
This type of Triphthong sound is a combination of three vowels /e/, /ɪ/, and /ə/.
To produce this Triphthong sound, first of all, the lips must be slightly spread and wide,
the front of the tongue must be between half-open and half-close positions to produce
the vowel /e/. After that, the position of the tongue tip is behind the lower teeth and the
center of the tongue in a half-close position. Finally, to produce this vowel completely,
moved the position of the tongue tip to behind the lower teeth and the tongue position is
half-open and half-close. Words containing this Triphthong sound are ‘layer’, ‘player’,
etc.
2.
/aɪ/ + /ə/ = /aɪə/
This type of Triphthong sound is a combination of three vowels /a/, /ɪ/, and /ə/.
To produce this Triphthong sound, first of all, the jaw must be opened, then, the tongue
position must be at the bottom of the mouth and below the lower teeth. After that, the
position of the tongue tip is behind the lower teeth and the center of the tongue in a halfclose position. Finally, to produce this vowel completely, moved the position of the
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tongue tip to behind the lower teeth and the tongue position is half-open and half-close.
The way of pronouncing the previous two vowels (/ɪ/ and /ə/) are similar to the first type
of Triphthong vowel, /eiə/. Words containing this Triphthong sound are ‘liar’, ‘fire’, etc.
3.
/ɔɪ/ + /ə/ = /ɔɪə/
This type of Triphthong sound is a combination of three vowels /ɔ/, /ɪ/, and /ə/.
To produce this Triphthong sound, first of all, the lips must be in a medium round
position and the tongue is raised between the half-open and half-close positions. After
that, move the center of the tongue nerarer the center mouth in a half-close position,
then, back to the half-open and half-close positions with the tip of the tongue is behind
the lower teeth. Words containing this type of Triphthong sound are ‘loyal’, ‘royal’, etc.
4.
/əʊ/ + /ə/ = /əʊə/
This type of Triphthong sound is a combination of vowels /ə/, /ʊ/, and /ə/. To
produce this Triphthong sound, first of all, the position of the tongue is in half-open and
half-close. After that, the center of the tongue is raised to half-close position and the lips
must be in a round position. Finally, to produce this Triphthong sound completely, move
the tongue in half-open and half-close position again and the tip of the tongue is behind
the lower teeth. Words containing this Triphthong sound are ‘lower’, ‘mower’, etc.
5.
/aʊ/ + /ə/ = /aʊə/
This type of Triphthong sound is a combination of vowels /a/, /ʊ/, and /ə/. To
produce this Tirphthong sound, first of all, the jaw must be opened then the tongue is at
the bottom of the mouth and below the lower teeth. After that, the center of the tongue is
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raised between the half-close position and the lips must be in a round looks. Finally, to
produce this Triphthong sound completely, move the position of the tongue to half-open
and half-close and the tongue tip position must be behind the lower teeth. Words
containing this Triphthong sound are ‘power’, ‘hour’, etc.
2.6.
Previous Studies of Production and Perception of English Vowels
In this part, the writer will give some previous research about production and
perception of English vowels. The previous studies used are created by Flege, MacKay,
and Meador (1999); Tsukada, Birdsong, Bialystok, Mack, Sung, and Flege (2005) and
Ria Wijaya from Binus University (2007). The writer will examine the participants,
instrument, data collection, and the result of the research of each previous study.
2.6.1. Native Italian Speakers’ Perception and Production of English Vowels by
James Emil Flege, Ian R. A. MacKay, and Diane Meador (1999).
This study is about native Italian speakers’ perception and production based on
their age of arrival (AOA) in Canada and how much they continued to use Italian
language. The participants of this research are seventy two Italian who were born in Italy
and started to learn English in Canada and eighteen native English speakers. The
participants’ mean age was 48 years old. So, the total number of participants is 90. The
participants were divided to four groups based on length of residence. Native English
group, native Italian early group, native Italian mid group, and native Italian late group.
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Since there are two experiments in this research, the first instruments used in this
research are a test material of written list of four words sequences which contained 10
target vowels of interests, they are /i/, /ɪ/, /æ/, /o/, /ɒ/, /ʊ/, /u/, /ʌ/, /ɜ/, and /e/. An
auditory test which spoken by a male native English speaker. This auditory test is used
to reduce the likelihood of spelling pronunciation.
The data collection procedures of the first experiment were held at Phonetic
laboratory of the University of Ottawa, Canada. The participants were required to say
the four words in sequences after hearing the whole sequences. After that, Flege et al.
recorded the sounds of the participants. To obscure the biases sound of consonants,
Flege et al. edited the sound.
The result of this research shows that English vowel spoken by Native English
speakers is 94% accurate, English vowel spoken by the native Italian in early group is
92% accurate, English vowel spoken by the native Italian in mid group is 87% accurate,
and English vowel spoken by native Italian in early group is 67% accurate. It means that
the longer the person lives in Canada, the more accurate the pronunciation of English
vowels.
In the second experiment, the participants are similar to the first experiment. The
instrument used is a stimuli in English which spoken by five female English native
speakers and another stimuli which spoken by five female Italian native speakers. The
data collection procedure of this experiment was the participants were required to click
the button if they heard one vowel which is different from the other vowels.
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The result of the second experiment is second language vowel production
accuracy depends on how the second language vowels are perceived rather than how
vowels in first language are perceived.
2.6.2. The Correlation between the Accuracy of English Vowel Perception and
Production by Eighth Semester Students of English Department at Bina Nusantara
University by Ria Wijaya (2007).
This study is about the perception and production accuracy of eight semester
students of English department at Bina Nusantara University of English vowels. The
participants of this research were 30 students from eight semester students at Bina
Nusantara University.
The instruments used for this research are two test material and questionnaires.
The test materials consist of English vowel perception and English vowel production
test. Each test consists of 36 selected words from the twelve vowels /i/, /ɪ/, /æ/, /ɑ:/, /ɒ/,
/ɔ:/, /ʊ/, /u:/, /ʌ/, /ɜ/, /e/ and /ə/. The 36 words include 21 words of short vowels and 15
words of long vowels. The questionnaires are distributed to five students of eight
semester students in order to find out the reason of inaccuracy of production and
perception of English vowels. The others questionnaires are given to the three related
lecturers to find out the solutions for the inaccuracy of the production and perception of
English vowels.
For the data collection procedure of this research, first of all, Ria Wijaya
distributed the test materials to the students between June 27, 2006 and July 3, 2006.
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After distributing the test materials, students were required to do the production and
perception test. After that, Ria Wijaya distributed the questionnaires between Jan 8,
2007 and Jan 12, 2007. Finally, after collecting the data, Ria analyzed it using Pearson’s
product moment coefficient of correlation to find out the correlation between the
production and perception of English vowels.
The results of the research are, for the average score of perception, students get
69 score. For the average score of production, students get 75 score. Ria also finds that
there is a positive relation between the students’ English vowel perception accuracy and
production accuracy. The students’ English vowel perception and production accuracy
increased as it were increased and the students’ English vowel perception decreased as it
were decreased.
2.6.3. A Developmental Study of English Vowel Production and Perception by
Native Korean Adults and Children by Kimiko Tsukada, David Birdsong, Ellen
Bialystok, Molly Mack, Hyekyung Sung, James Flege (2005).
This study is about the accuracy between the adults Korean native speakers and
children Korean native speakers. There are three experiments. For the first experiments,
Tsukata et al. ask three males and five females with average age 31.4 years who had
loved in English speaking country for around 6 to 11 months.
The instrument used for the first experiment is a stimuli produced by an adult
male Korean native speaker consists of 8 English vowels /i, ɪ, e, æ, ɑ, ʌ, u/. Another
instrument is a questionnaire to find out the background of the language. The data
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collection procedures of the first experiment is the participants were required to fill the
questionnaire to find out the background of the language, then, the participants tested
individually. After that, the participants were required to identify the stimuli in term of
one of the eight English vowels by clicking the Hangul character displayed on the
screen.
The result of the first experiment is native Korean speakers could not classify
either /e/ or the /ɛ/ tokens consistently and made the both vowels were mapped onto
multiple Korean vowel.
The second experiment is conducted to compare the discrimination of English
vowels by native Korean adults and children to native English adults and children also
with the age already matched. Total of participants are 108 and divided to six groups
which has 18 participants in each group. 72 participants are native Korean who had
immigrated to North America and 36 participants are native English. Half of them are
adults and the rest are children. The instruments used are similar to the first experiment.
The data collection procedures of this research is the participants were required to
identify the stimuli, then, respond the trial.
The result of the second experiment has shown that, native Korean children get
higher score than native Korean adults in all four English vowels (ɛ- æ, e- ɛ, i-ɪ, ɑ-ʌ).
Native Korean children with the length of residence of 3 years discriminated English
vowels less accurately than the native English children. Native Korean children are in
process of learning to perceive English vowels in native English way.
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The third experiment is conducted to test the English vowels /i, ɪ, e, æ, ɛ, ɑ, ʌ/.
The participants are similar to the second experiment. The instrument used is an auditory
stimuli spoken by an adult male native English speaker which consists of 7 vowels in 21
words given. For the data collection procedure, the participants were required to produce
vowels which are familiar to the participants including for children.
The results of the third experiments are native Korean children produced the
vowels more accurately than the native Korean adults do. Native Korean adults
production’s score is larger than the native English adults do. Native Korean children
production’s score is larger contrasts than the native Korean adults who are matched for
length of residence 3 years and did not different significantly from the native English
children and the last result is native Korean children production and perception are
similar to native English children than the native Korean adults
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