FIGURE CAPTIONS
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Caption
Front cover These beautifully exposed sedimentary rocks are part of the Lower Devonian Liptrap Formation. Deformed,
rhythmically-bedded, continentally-derived turbidites such as these are characteristic of the Tasman Fold Belt system in
Victoria. They comprise the bulk of the Palaeozoic bedrock exposure, and host the bulk of Victoria’s hard-rock gold mineralisation. In this platform at Cape Liptrap, tight south-plunging folds and oblique faults have been offset by the eroded
major cross-faults. All these structures were probably formed during the Middle Devonian Tabberabberan Orogeny. Photo
by RAC.
Back cover Some token mine somewhere, before all the trees were cut down, the gold price collapsed, and everyone left,
the neglected tailings dam failing and killing everything with acid. Photo by B.S. Artist
Frontispiece. “Geologically coloured” sketch map of Victoria, 1863 by A.R.C. Selwyn.
Foldout. Time–space plot.
Figure 1.1. Map of the eastern Australian fold belts and Victorian structural zones. (Antarctic–Australia reconstruction
after Royer & Rollet, 1997; NSW zones modified from Scheibner & Basden, 1996). Green colours indicate Delamerian/Tyennan fold belts, blue colours cover the Whitelaw Terrane. Reds and purples indicate the Benambra Terrane with
only the zones extending into Victoria fully coloured.
Figure 1.2. Regional magnetic image of southeastern Australia. Zone boundaries as for figure 1.1.
Figure 1.3. Pre-Permian geology of Victoria.
Figure 1.4. Victoria’s and Australia’s total gold production.
Figure 1.5. Detail of geological and mining map of the New Chum line of reef, Bendigo (Taylor, 1886).
Figure 1.6. Sir Alfred Richard Cecil Selwyn (1824–1902), first Director of the Geological Survey of Victoria.
Figure 1.7. Victoria—total magnetic intensity (TMI) image. (Data from GSV, AGSO and company airborne surveys.)
Figure 1.8. Victoria—total radioelement concentration (white = high, magenta = low) with total radioelement (difference filtered) as greyscale intensity. (Data from GSV, AGSO and company airborne surveys.)
Figure 1.9. Victoria—Bouguer anomaly gravity image. (Data from GSV, AGSO and company surveys.)
Figure 1.10. Map of Victoria showing metallic mineralisation and zones.
Figure 1.11. Goldfields with gold production exceeding five tonnes—west to east. Significant placer gold mined
during the poorly documented rushes of the 1850s and early 1860s is mostly not included. See goldfield descriptions in 3.2 structural zones for sources of production values.
Figure 2.1. Ceres Gabbro. Thin section of mylonitic metagabbro with porphyroclast of hornblende. A late vein of plagioclase cuts the mylonitic foliation. Plane polarised light, 4 x 2.7 mm.
Figure 2.2. Heathcote Volcanics—Mount William Metabasalt. A: basalt pillows with dark grey cooling rinds. B: interflow black shale showing shear zones and quartz veining. Lake Cooper quarry. Photo by DM.
Figure 2.3. Maitland Beach Volcanics. Pillow basalt with intensive jointing which has not affected pillow shape. Younging is downwards in this view. Maitland Beach, Waratah Bay. Photo by AHMV. See Fig. 2.6.
Figure 2.4. Corduroy Creek Gabbro. Outcrop showing less altered corestones surrounded by strongly altered and veined
rock (cataclasite?). South of Digger Island, Waratah Bay. Photo by RAC. See Fig. 2.6.
Figure 2.5. Lickhole Volcanics—Sheepyard Flat Boninite. Formerly glassy boninite lava with glass replaced by nearisotropic chlorite hosting strongly zoned microphenocrysts and microlites of clinopyroxene (with cores of pigeonite or
hollow). Note absence of plagioclase. Fry’s Hut corner, Howqua River. Crossed polars. Photo by A.J. Crawford.
Figure 2.6. Geological map of Cape Liptrap, with inset showing detailed geology exposed along the east coast between
Walkerville and Maitland Beach. Links are shown to other figures in the text.
Figure 2.7. Tyennan unconformity with Bear Gully Chert and Digger Island Marlstone lying unconformably on sheared
Corduroy Creek Gabbro and ultramafics. A: view of whole outcrop showing relationships; RAC (2 m) for scale. The subhorizontal shears are clearest near hammer. The angular relationship is very clear in B. Pale band is Bear Gully Chert Bed
disrupted by extensional Tabberabberan faults and overlain by dark Digger Island Marlstone. Waratah Bay 350 m north of
Digger Island. Photos by CEW and RAC. See Fig. 2.6.
Figure 2.8. Mount Ararat Prospect. Banded chalcopyrite–pyrrhotite exhalative copper ore (quartz gangue) and graphitic
schist. Photo by RAC.
Figure 2.9. Cambrian volcanics—calc-alkaline rocks, western Victoria. Mount Stavely Volcanic Complex. A: andesite
lava unit, Mount Elliot. Low-Ti andesite with abundant fresh plagioclase and clinopyroxene. Crossed polars, 4 X 2.7 mm.
B: dacite breccia unit, Mount Dryden. Poorly rounded cobble and boulder breccia/conglomerate showing cooling rinds
indicative of subaqueous extrusion. They may be pillow fragments. Photos by AHMV and RAC.
Figure 2.10. Cambrian volcanics—Licola Volcanics. A: Cobbs Spur Andesite Breccia, monomictic andesite breccia,
southern end of Licola window. This rock is host to several small to medium sized limestone megaclasts. B: Tobacco
Creek Andesite. Cooling columns in andesite lava. Wallaby Creek, Licola window. Photos by AHMV and
M.A. Hendrickx.
Figure 2.11. Depositional setting of the Licola Volcanics. Depth of deposition of the lower andesitic lavas is not known.
The Cobbs Spur Andesite Breccia is interpreted as a sector-collapse unit in which limestone megaclasts are from a crowning atoll deposited close to the sea surface. The absence of any volcanic detritus within the limestone suggests that the
volcano may have been extinct when the limestone was deposited. Adapted from VandenBerg et al. (1995).
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TASMAN FOLD BELT SYSTEM IN VICTORIA
Figure 2.12. Hill 800—Ministers Gossan. Average 7–8 g/t Au. Photo by Mount Wellington Gold.
Figure 2.13. St Arnaud Group. A: graded turbidites and interbedded mudstones of the Pyrenees Formation.
B: F2 fold hinge with carbonate concretions compressed along the S2 cleavage, Warrak Formation near Warrak. Photos by
RAC and J. Krokowski de Vickerod.
Figure 2.14. Geological map of the southern segment of the Heathcote Fault Zone (Lancefield–Romsey–Monegeetta).
Adapted from VandenBerg (1992).
Figure 2.15. Goldie Chert. Well bedded chert with stylolitic bedding partings. View Hill Quarry, Romsey. Photo by
AHMV.
Figure 2.16. Knowsley East Shale. Graded lithic (basaltic) sandstones. Deep Creek near Monegeetta. Photo by AHMV.
Figure 2.17. Bear Gully Chert Bed. Slabbed section of entire bed showing fine lamination disrupted by soft-sediment
deformation and burrowing, and with large quartz pebble. From outcrop shown in figure 2.7. Photo by C. Osborne. See
Fig. 2.6.
Figure 2.18. Howqua Chert. Thick monotonous sequence of (originally black) chert. Quarry, Dookie. Photo by AHMV.
Figure 2.19. Geological map of the Glenelg River Metamorphic Complex.
Figure 2.20. Glenelg River Metamorphic Complex. Thin sections of various rock types. A: pelitic schist with staurolite
porphyroblasts wrapped by S2 foliation, Wando Vale area. Plane polarised light, 4 x 2.7 mm. B: ultramafic schist with
brightly coloured actinolite crystals in a fine grained talc–calcite matrix, Wando River. Crossed polars, 4 x 2.7 mm. Photos by VJM.
Figure 2.21. Glenelg River Metamorphic Complex. Thin section of amphibolite with F3 folds deforming S2 lamination.
Robertson Creek. Plane polarised light, 4 x 2.7 mm. Photo by VJM.
Figure 2.22. Castlemaine Group on Mornington Peninsula. A: thick- and thin-bedded turbidites (Facies 2 and 4, Table
2.20) of middle Bendigonian (Be3–4) age. B: southern quarry face showing entire 10-metre thick Be4–Ca1 chert package
(Facies 7, Table 2.20) overlying turbidites shown in A. C: detail of Be4–Ca1 chert package. Most beds are chert; black
(siliceous) shales are the thin recessive beds between the strongly jointed shale. Devilbend Quarry, Mornington Peninsula.
Photos by AHMV.
Figure 2.23. Castlemaine Group. Medium sandstone (Facies 4, Table 2.20) with small soft-sediment extensional step
faults that only offset the sandstone top. They are interpreted to be current drag features. Spring Gully Reservoir, Bendigo.
Photo by AHMV.
Figure 2.24. Castlemaine Group—Romsey Subgroup—Lano Gully Sandstone. Thick sandstone (Facies 2, Table 2.20)
with water-escape structures. Lano Gully, Romsey. Photo by AHMV.
Figure 2.25. Adaminaby Group—Pinnak Sandstone. Facies 3 gritstone showing ill-defined banding of dark granules
(smoky quartz) and pale granules (clear granitic quartz and vein quartz). Wongungarra River near confluence with Wonnangatta River, in hanging wall of Wonnangatta Fault. Photo by AHMV.
Figure 2.26. Digger Island Marlstone. A: detail of breccia in lowermost dolomitic portion of the formation; B,C,: outcrop
and slabbed section of thinly bedded marlstone typical of much of the formation. Photos by C. Osborne and AHMV. See
Fig. 2.6.
Figure 2.27. Slab of Yapeenian graptolites from Willey’s Quarry, Woodend. The faunal diversity shown here is typical of
much of the Castlemaine Group. Identifiable are Goniograptus speciosus (very large), Corymbograptus v-deflexus, Oncograptus upsilon, Cardiograptus morsus, Isograptus caduceus australis, Pseudisograptus manubriatus and Pseudotrigonograptus ensiformis.
Figure 2.28. Reconstruction of Victorispina holmesorum, one of the eighteen described trilobite species from the Digger
Island Marlstone. Courtesy Frank Holmes.
Figure 2.29. Adaminaby Group—Pinnak Sandstone. Thick-bedded turbidites (Facies 2, Table 2.20) composed almost
entirely of Bouma Ta intervals, interbedded with Facies 4 thin-bedded sandstone and mudstone. Younging is to left. Genoa River. Photo by C.L. Fergusson.
Figure 2.30. Adaminaby Group—Pinnak Sandstone. Facies 4 thin-bedded sandstone and dark mudstone. Younging is to
left. Genoa River. Photo by C.L. Fergusson.
Figure 2.31. Bendoc Group—Sunlight Creek Formation. Thin-bedded Facies 4 sandstone and mudstone, younging to
right. Broadbent River (also known as Mountain Creek, below New Country Creek). Photo by AHMV.
Figure 2.32. Mount Easton Shale. Black shale with perfect slaty cleavage. Steiner’s Quarry, Mount Useful Fault Zone,
Jamieson–Howqua divide. Photo by AHMV.
Figure 2.33. Bendoc Group—Warbisco Shale. Black siliceous shale showing plastic cylindrical folds that have no cleavage and are therefore difficult to discern. Type section, Mountain Creek. Photo by AHMV.
Figure 2.34. Sunbury Group—Riddell Sandstone. Graded Facies 3 pebble conglomerate composed mostly of quartz vein
pebbles. Konagaderra Creek. Photo by AHMV.
Figure 2.35. Bendoc Group—New Country Sandstone. Sandstone base showing flute casts. Type section, Eustace Gap
Track, Lake Dartmouth. Photo by AHMV.
Figure 2.36. Reconstruction of Protocytidium elliottae, Victoria’s oldest known mitrate echinoderm, from the Darraweit
Guim Mudstone (Ruta & Jell, 1999a; Fig. 13). Top(?), side and front views. Reproduced by courtesy of Peter Jell.
Figure 2.37. Moornambool Metamorphic Complex: thin section of garnet amphibolite showing large garnets in a matrix
of green hornblende and plagioclase. Plane polarised light, 4 x 2.7 mm. Photo by VJM.
Figure 2.38. Moornambool Metamorphic Complex—Carrolls Amphibolite. Schistose amphibolite with boudinaged
quartz veins, some showing fold hinges. Carrolls Cutting, Ararat. Photo by RAC.
Figure 2.39. Geological map of the Omeo Zone showing distribution of metamorphic zones and major faults. CSZ =
Cassilis Shear Zone, DCF = Dribbling Creek Fault, ESZ = Ensay Shear Zone, RCF = Reedy Creek Fault, TCFZ = Tallangatta Creek Fault Zone.
Figure 2.40. Omeo Metamorphic Complex. A: thin section of sillimanite–andalusite–K-feldspar gneiss showing sillimanite fibres (yellow) replacing andalusite grains (light to dark grey) along margins and internal cracks. Crossed polars, 1.6 x
1.1 mm. Cassilis mine dump. B: calc-silicate lens in sillimanite–K-feldspar zone gneiss, pencil for scale. Omeo–Benambra
Road. C: thin section of cordierite–andalusite schist showing a large crystal of andalusite surrounded by biotite and
quartz. Note the curved intergrowths of biotite and quartz, indicating growth during rotation, i.e. during deformation.
Buckwong–Mount Hope Road. Plane polarised light, 4 x 2.7 mm. Photos by VJM and M.A. Hendrickx.
Figure 2.41. Omeo Metamorphic Complex. Sillimanite–K-feldspar zone gneiss with K-feldspar augen. Bogong. Photo by
VJM.
Figure 2.42. Omeo Metamorphic Complex. Migmatite envelope of Dartmouth Granite with flow layering enveloping
large quartzite inclusion. Western end of spillway face, Dartmouth Dam. Photo by AHMV.
Figure 2.43. Geological map of the Kuark Zone.
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FIGURE CAPTIONS
Figure 2.44. Representative radiometric age constraints on the timing of orogenic gold emplacement—
Whitelaw Terrane. See goldfield descriptions in 3.2 structural zones for sources.
Figure 2.45. Summary diagram illustrating the correlation of orebody morphology with increasing metamorphic grade
with selected deposits as examples. After McCuaig and Kerrich (1998) and Nesbitt et al. (1989). At low confining stresses
and temperatures, rocks deform by cataclasis and brittle fracture producing abundant fault gouge, breccia and stockworks
(Middle Devonian orogenic gold). Increasing confining stress with depth promotes more ductile behaviour (Silurian –
Early Devonian orogenic gold). Abbreviations: cb = cinnabar; mu = muscovite; bt = biotite; cal = calcite; ank = ankerite;
dol = dolomite; stib = stibnite; apy = arsenopyrite; po = pyrrhotite; py = pyrite. Sources: MagdalaStawell (Ma) Mapani &
Wilson (1998); Wattle GullyCastlemaine (WG), MaxwellInglewood (Mx), New CambrianTarnagulla (NC), Nagambie
(N), Brunswick (Br), Bailieston (Ba), Gao & Kwak (1995); Central DeborahBendigo (B) P. Schaub (pers. comm.); antimony mineralisation in the Bendigo Zone (BSb) Changkakoti et al. (1996). Chlorite geothermometry is from Gao and
Kwak (1995) and Li (1998).
Figure 2.46. Development of bedding plane slip surfaces, thrusts and extension arrays through progressive coaxial shortening. After Sibson and Scott (1998).
Figure 2.47. Gold mineralisation—sigmoidal and laminated veins. Sigmoidal quartz veins signal alternating hydraulic
fracturing at high fluid pressure and ductile creep at lower fluid pressure, while laminated veins point to fluid pressures
which cyclically exceed lithostatic pressure. During successive hydraulic fracture events, dilation tends to occurs beyond
competent alteration envelopes around older veins, forming laminated veins with rafts of host rock. Nick O’Time shoot,
Poverty reef, Tarnagulla. Photo by AR.
Figure 2.48. Quartz vein δ18O profile across the Lachlan fold belt at approximately 37 latitude. Note the broad homogeneity of values between major faults, and steps at those faults. After Gray et al. (1991a).
Figure 2.49. Lead isotope ratios of orogenic gold deposits in the Stawell and Bendigo zones in relation to the mantle and
crustal growth curves for the Whitelaw Terrane and Central Lachlan Fold Belt of Carr et al. (1995) (= Whitelaw Terrane
and western portion of the Benambra Terrane). Radiogenic compositions which scatter to the right broadly follow the
400 Ma isochron. The composition of Cambrian boninite from Heathcote is also shown. After Bierlein and McNaughton
(1998); Gulson et al. (1990b).
Figure 2.50. Comparison of gold-only and gold–antimony fluid inclusion isotope compositions, Bendigo and Melbourne
zones. After Changkakoti et al. (1996).
Figure 2.51. Paragenesis of alteration and ore minerals. Vein quartz is not shown. This paragenesis is fairly uniform for
mineralisation associated with the Benambran Orogeny except that biotite is mostly absent outside the Stawell zone.
Maxwells mine, Inglewood goldfield. From Gao and Kwak (1997).
Figure 2.52. Hydrothermal alteration. Element distribution in slates plotted against sample distance. Wattle Gully vein,
Wattle Gully mine, Chewton. From Gao and Kwak (1997).
Figure 2.53. Geological map of the Grampians Group. Only the largest faults are shown. Adapted from Cayley and Taylor
(1997).
Figure 2.54. Grampians Group—sedimentary structures. A: trough cross-bedding, Wartook Sandstone, Reid’s Lookout;
B: lamination largely destroyed by intense vertical Skolithos burrows, Wartook Sandstone, Black Range; C: low-angle
cross bedding in very shallow swales, Serra Sandstone, Grand Canyon; D: large-scale aeolian dune cross-bedding, Daahl
Sandstone, Black Range (just below B). Steve Carey for scale. Photos by AHMV and RAC.
Figure 2.55. Grampians Group—unusual lithologies. A: red Silverband Formation siltstone with polygonal desiccation
cracks, Asses Ears region. B: Pohlner Conglomerate, with sedimentary and volcanic lithic clasts and rounded vein quartz
cobbles, from the type locality east of Wartook. Photos by RAC.
Figure 2.56. Rocklands Volcanics. A: outcrop of Barangaroo Ignimbrite showing lava-like folded flow banding interpreted
as rheomorphic flow features. Rocklands dam quarry. B: thin section of Gatum Ignimbrite. The vitric-rich ignimbrite
shows densely welded dark fabric showing flowage (rheomorphism) around phenocrysts of feldspar (green, altered) and
quartz (white). Plane polarised light, 10 x 7 mm. Photos by AHMV and C.J. Simpson.
Figure 2.57. Kerrie Conglomerate. Well-sorted conglomerate showing vague horizontal bedding, Ron Spiller for scale.
Conglomerate Gully, Riddells Creek. Photo by AHMV.
Figure 2.58. Geological map of Yalmy Fold Belt and Mount Gelantipy caldera. Note that on cross-section ABC, the
dashed lines indicate the interpreted structural relationships prior to the intrusion of the Amboyne Granodiorite whose
southern “bulge” is indicated by extensive hornfels. Adapted from VandenBerg et al. (1990) and Orth et al. (1993).
Figure 2.59. Yalmy Group. A, B: bedding style and detail of coarse sandstone of Sy1, Mountain Creek (type section) Fons
VandenBerg for scale. C: gently dipping quartzitic sandstone and mudstone of Sy3, Mount Tingaringi. D: quartzitic turbidites of the Tongaro Sandstone. Type section, Mitta Mitta River. Yalmy Fold Belt. Photos by AHMV.
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Figure 2.60. Yalmy Group limestone—“Meanders 2” lens of VandenBerg et al. (1998). A shows massive pale limestone
body flanked by darker rocky quartzitic turbidites; B shows strong solution modification along cleavage developed within
part of the limestone. Tongaro Sandstone in type section, Mitta Mitta River. Photos by AHMV.
Figure 2.61. Yalmy Group conglomerates. A: irregular contact between conglomerate and sandstone. Seldom Seen Formation, type section, Buchan River below Mount Seldom Seen. B: graded conglomerate consisting of chert and black
shale clasts compressed along tectonic flattening direction, and uncompressed vein quartz and sandstone clasts. Towanga
Formation, Buchan River. Photos by AHMV.
Figure 2.62. Geological map of Limestone Creek region. Shown are the Upper Silurian Limestone Creek Graben sequence,
and the Lower Devonian Mount Tambo, Snowy River and Buchan groups. The Lower Devonian rocks are shown in greater detail in Figure 2.82. Adapted from Allen (1991), VandenBerg et al. (1998) and Willman et al. (1999a).
Figure 2.63. Enano Group—upper part. A: volcanic breccia with limestone clasts, lowermost Cowombat Siltstone, near
Wilga mine. B: limestone with abundant large bipyramidal quartz and feldspar crystals weathering out. Cowombat Siltstone, upper lens in Claire Creek, Limestone Creek area. Photos by AHMV.
Figure 2.64. Enano Group—Thorkidaan Volcanics. A: basal conglomerate overlying Towanga Formation. B: porphyritic
foliated rhyodacite with quartz veins. Reedy Creek outlier, Reedy Creek. C: outcrop habit of massive rhyolite, Indi (upper
Murray) River. Karin Orth and Doone Wyborn for scale. Photos by AHMV.
Figure 2.65. Geological map of Wombat Creek area. From VandenBerg et al. (1998).
Figure 2.66. Wombat Creek Group. A, B: Undowah Siltstone. A: graded (rhyolite) lithic conglomerate and sandstone at
base of formation. B: Helminthoides feeding trails in vitric mudstone. Type section, Toaks Creek arm, Lake Dartmouth.
C: Toaks Creek Conglomerate. Detail showing heterolithic character—largest clast is of quartz porphyry. Type section,
Toaks Creek arm, Lake Dartmouth. Photos by AHMV.
Figure 2.67. Koomberar Formation. A: cut slab of volcaniclastic graded sandstone–conglomerate, with angular clasts of
andesite. Nobby Road, Barmouth Creek. B: thin section of rhyolitic volcanic rock, probably ignimbrite, with fragmental
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TASMAN FOLD BELT SYSTEM IN VICTORIA
quartz phenocrysts and occasional clasts of sandstone and siltstone in a strongly foliated groundmass of very fine sericite,
chlorite and minor biotite. Nobby Road. Crossed polars, 30 x 12.5 mm. Photos by CEW.
Figure 2.68. Sardine Conglomerate. Detail of conglomerate with poorly rounded clasts all of sandstone derived from Pinnak Sandstone. Sardine Creek area. Photo by AHMV.
Figure 2.69. Cross-sections, Wilga Prospect
Figure 2.70. Wilga ore. Drill intersections from three drillholes in the Wilga ore deposit. Top: banded ore in which sulphides have replaced compositional layering that parallels the prevailing (Bindian) cleavage; 20+% Cu, 1.9% Zn, 70 ppm
Ag (Bend 23, 116.9 m). Bottom: replacement breccia showing chalcopyrite stringer; grey patches have more sphalerite;
13.4% Cu, 0.7% Zn, 0.2% Pb, 50 ppm Ag (Bend 19, 103 m). Photo by D. Barr.
Figure 2.71. The Bindian unconformity. A: view of entire outcrop. Pale rock in foreground is rhyolite of Thorkidaan Volcanics with weak tectonic fabric running from bottom right to top left. Dark overlying rock is basal breccia and conglomerate (shown in close-up in B) of the Attunga Paringa Formation, the basal unit of the Avonmore Subgroup (Snowy River
Volcanics). Tambo River near Mount Tambo Road bridge, Ross Ramsay for scale. Photos by AHMV.
Figure 2.72. Mount Tambo Group—Mount Shanahan Sandstone. Thin section of coarse grained ignimbrite with prominent spherulites, Old Mill Ignimbrite Member. Crossed polars, 4 x 2.7 mm. Photo by AHMV.
Figure 2.73. Errinundra Group—Bungywarr Formation. Rhyolite hyaloclastite showing jigsaw-fit texture. Pine Creek near
Combienbar. Photo by AHMV.
Figure 2.74. Geological map of the Buchan Rift. From Orth et al. (1993), VandenBerg et al. (1996).
Figure 2.75. Snowy River Volcanics. Inferred correlation of various subgroups and formations. Modified from Orth et al.
(1995) and VandenBerg et al. (1996).
Figure 2.76. Snowy River Volcanics—Basal breccias. Granite breccia/conglomerate overlying the Campbells Knob Granodiorite and interpreted to be part of a scree or colluvial fan. Snowy River. Photo by D. Wyborn.
Figure 2.77. Snowy River Volcanics—Timbarra Subgroup. A: diffusely bedded breccia–conglomerate (fanglomerate),
Wilkinson Creek Conglomerate, type section, Wilkinson Creek. B: turbiditic sandstone and mudstone typical of marine
and lake sediments of the Snowy River Volcanics. Johnson Mudstone, type section. Photos by AHMV and K. Orth
Figure 2.78. Tara Range Subgroup—Fluke Knob Ignimbrite. Thin section of laminated tuff showing graded bedding in
laminae, and volcanic glass spheres. The deposit is interpreted to be subaqueous and deposited during a single but pulsating eruption, at a considerable distance from the eruption point. Each layer represents a single pulse of eruption. Near
Fluke Knob. Crossed polars, 4 x 2.7 mm. Photo by M.A. Hendrickx.
Figure 2.79. Snowy River Volcanics—Berrmarr Subgroup. A: looking north along eastern margin of Buchan Rift with
inverted topography. Low-lying area is in Silurian Suggan Buggan Granodiorite which is overlain by thick Ballantyne
Megabreccia (middle of slope) and capped by resistant Black Mountain Ignimbrite. Hill in foreground is large rhyolite
lava knob, part of the large Deddick Lava rift margin intrusion. World End Spur, near Suggan Buggan. B: outcrop of
Ballantyne Megabreccia showing large ignimbrite block enclosed in pebbly sandstone. Note person at far left for scale.
Wulgulmerang–Suggan Buggan road near Mount Hamilton. Photos by R. Nott and AHMV.
Figure 2.80. Snowy River Volcanics—Tulloch Ard Ignimbrite. Detail showing small dark pumice fragments with variable
flattening, and abundant lithic clasts. Snowy River, Tulloch Ard gorge. Photo by AHMV.
Figure 2.81. Little River Subgroup. A: tuff with alternating beds of mainly ash and crystals (jointed) and beds rich in
accretionary lapilli from the Fairy Sandstone. Ash-and-crystal layers are base surge deposits whereas accretionary lapilli
layers are mostly airfall material. Gelantipy Road near Murrindal River bridge.
B: Little River gorge consists almost entirely of Gelantipy Ignimbrite which here is an intra-caldera ignimbrite within the
Woongulmerang Caldera. Much thinner outflows continue south to Mount Murrindal. Photos by AHMV.
Figure 2.82. Geological map of the Bindi and Scrubby Creek synclines. Note the extremely lenticular nature of much of
the Avonmore Subgroup, reflecting its deposition onto a mountainous landscape. From Hendrickx et al. (1999).
Figure 2.83. Snowy River Volcanics – Buchan Group contact. Conformable contact between unwelded top of the McRaes
Ignimbrite and the Buchan Caves Limestone. Murrindal River, Hume Park. Photo by AHMV.
Figure 2.84. Rock relationships at Bindi. The irregular base of the Buchan Group follows the boundary of the cleared land
to within a few tens of metres. At the far end of the steep cleared slope across Old Hut Creek (Marble Gully) the limestone
overlies thin Quindalup Ignimbrite but this disappears at the spur top, where the limestone lies directly on Enano Group
conglomerate (Mount Walterson Member). On the skyline ridge (Cave Hill), very thin Roadsend Formation lies between
limestone and conglomerate. On the closer wooded slope to the right, thick Quindalup Ignimbrite occurs. The lower
cleared slopes are in Taravale Marlstone. Mount Tambo is on the left skyline. Bindi Station, looking north. Photo by
AHMV.
Figure 2.85. Buchan Group—Taravale Marlstone. Outcrop of mudstone with limestone nodules. Bedding dips to the right
at a gentle apparent angle and the more steeply dipping fabric that wraps around the nodules is the reticulate cleavage. Old
Paddock Creek, Bindi. Photo by AHMV.
Figure 2.86. Buchan Group—Buchan Caves Limestone. A: bluff showing bedding style. Jacksons Crossing, Snowy River
northeast of Buchan. B: detail of limestone with rich tabulate and stromatoporoid fossil content. South Buchan quarry. C:
Amberley Park Volcaniclastic Member, thin section showing rounded granules of andesite with well-developed trachytic
texture. Photos by AHMV.
Figure 2.87. Botryoidal pyrite, sphalerite and galena, Back Creek. Photo by P. Cromie.
Figure 2.88. Geological map of the Dartella Volcanics. From VandenBerg et al. (1998) and Simpson et al. (1999).
Figure 2.89. Dartella Volcanics—Larsen Creek Ignimbrite. Pumiceous ignimbrite with well developed eutaxitic foliation.
Lake Dartmouth near mouth of Green Creek. Photo by AHMV.
Figure 2.90. Mount Elizabeth Caldera Complex. Geological and magnetic (TMI) maps and cross-sections, from Simpson
et al. (1996). Note that the outer ring dyke continues below the surface in the northeast, and that the central pluton is
somewhat larger in the subsurface.
Figure 2.91. Mount Elizabeth Caldera Complex. Rhyolite lava with well developed spherulitic texture. Photo by
C.J. Simpson.
Figure 2.92. White Monkey Volcanics—Mackieson Spur Tuff. Thin section of welded vitric ignimbrite. Plane polarised
light, 4 x 2.7 mm. Photo by K. Orth.
Figure 2.93. Geological map of the Heathcote–Colbinabbin–Nagambie region. Adapted from Edwards et al., 1998.
Figure 2.94. McIvor Sandstone. Nested channels in mainly turbiditic sandstone and mudstone, type locality, HeathcoteNagambie Road; Ross Cayley for scale. Photo by AHMV.
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FIGURE CAPTIONS
Figure 2.95. Geological map (A) and (B) radioelement pixel map of the Darraweit Guim area. Darker shading in A is
Cainozoic cover (mostly basalt) but outcrop is sufficient to allow bedrock boundaries to be interpolated. Note that the
different formations have quite different radiometric responses and that the lowest responses are from the quartz-rich
conglomerate and sandstone members in the Springfield Sandstone. (A) adapted from VandenBerg (1991), (B) new data.
Note also the strong colour contrast in Cainozoic volcanics—bright red colours are from slightly older basalts with low Th
content, green and blues are from youngest olivine tholeiite flows with soil cover; black “rims” are rocky basalt outcrops.
5
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Figure 2.96. Springfield Sandstone. A: bluff showing bedding style in thick-bedded sandstone. Deep Creek west of Beveridge. B: impersistent sandstone in pebble conglomerate with closed framework. Note rounding of pebbles. Stockdale
Conglomerate Member, type section. C: pebbly mudstone with well-rounded pebbles and siltstone clasts showing strong
plastic deformation. D: sandstone base showing flute casts. C,D: Jackson Creek near Calder Raceway. Photos by AHMV.
Figure 2.97. Silurian–Devonian rocks of the Melbourne region. A: Melbourne Formation showing typical thing to medium-bedded quartzitic turbidites and mudstones. Maroondah Highway, Coldstream; Bill Williams for scale. B, C: Humevale Siltstone. B: dark siltstone and rare thin fine sandstone characterise this formation. Christmas Hills. C: occasional sandstones show irregular swaley cross bedding indicative of reworking, probably by storm waves. Merriang Syncline near
Wallan. Photo by AHMV.
Figure 2.98. Lilydale Limestone. Outcrop of upward-fining cycle showing pronounced reddening towards top of cycle.
Lilydale Limestone quarry, from near top of the unit. Photo by AHMV.
Figure 2.99. Jordan River Group. A: Boola Formation. Graded lithic sandstone characteristic of the formation. Grains are
mostly of metabasalt and sandstones are usually deeply weathered. Moe–Erica Road. B: Wurutwun Formation. Crinoidal
limestone from megaclast, Toongabbie “marble” quarry. Photos by AHMV.
Figure 2.100. Jordan River Group—Wilson Creek Shale. A: in this most northwesterly outcrop the formation contains
very thin sandstone interbeds that are absent from the more typical outcrops in the Mount Easton Province. Tooborac–
Seymour road at Hume Freeway overpass. B: “Monograptus” thomasi and the vascular plant Baragwanathia longifolia.
19-Mile Quarry, Marysville–Woods Point road. Photos by AHMV.
Figure 2.101. Jordan River Group—Coopers Creek Limestone. A: graded chert conglomerate and calcarenite at base of
formation, Tyers River, type section. B: rudstone consisting of rounded clasts of very fine limestone in coarser (calcarenite) matrix. Tyers Quarry Photo by AHMV.
Figure 2.102. Jordan River Group. A: Lazarini Siltstone. Strongly bioturbated siltstone with bedding preserved by colour
banding. Steiners Track, Upper Howqua. B: Serpentine Creek Sandstone. Finely banded siltstone characteristic of Jordan
River Group siltstones. Note the slightly “crinkly” bedding style. Jamieson–Licola Road near Mount Skene. Photos by
AHMV.
Figure 2.103. Walhalla Group—Norton Gully Sandstone. A: association of thick-, medium- and thin-bedded lithofacies
characteristic of the formation. Maroondah Highway, Alexandra. B: turbidite with Tc style cross-lamination plastically
deformed during deposition; palaeocurrent direction from right to left. Karralika Heights, Eildon. C: pebbly sandstone.
Strongly bimodal rock with well rounded pebbles loosely scattered in moderately sorted granulestone. D: pale siltstone
interbedded with thin dark claystone. Note the planar bedding. Grading in the siltstones is shown by slight refraction of
cleavage. Maroondah Highway, Alexandra. Photos by AHMV.
Figure 2.104. Cathedral Group—Koala Creek Formation. A: red mudstone with large polygonal desiccation cracks, Quarry, Keppel Ridge. Chris Osborne for scale. B: view of Cathedral Range taken from west of Eildon, about 17 km north of
the range. The entire left skyline is of resistant Koala Creek Formation, with the softer upper unit in the synclinal core
forming the valley. The skyline at right is the Black Range, a resistant hornfels plateau with a general elevation of 600–
650 m; the Acheron valley between it and the Cathedral Range is about 400 m lower. Photos by AHMV.
Figure 2.105. Limestones at Waratah Bay. A: contact between Digger Island Marlstone and Waratah Limestone. Unfossiliferous Digger Island Marlstone has solution pits up to 30 cm deep containing boulders of Digger Island Marlstone in a
matrix of mostly chert pebbles. Bird Rock, Waratah Bay.
B: Bell Point Limestone. Bluff is about 5 m high, of well-bedded limestone folded into cylindrical Tabberabberan folds
with well developed fanning solution cleavage. Strong deformation is related to the Bell Point Shear Zone which is a few
tens of metres to the left of photo. Photos by AHMV. See Fig. 2.6.
Figure 2.106. Correlation chart of the Yarra Supergroup.
Figure 2.107. Some fossils of the Yarra Supergroup. A: the blind trilobite Thomastus, originally mistaken for Illaenus,
namegiver of the ‘Illaenus band’. This specimen is from the Chintin Formation. Photo by A. Sandford, courtesy Museum
of Victoria
B: complete specimen of Helicocrinus plumosus from the Melbourne Formation, West Brunswick. Specimen is 133.5 mm
long. Photo by F. Coffa, courtesy Museum of Victoria.
Figure 2.108. Palaeocurrents in Yarra Supergroup sandstones plotted in moving-average rose diagrams. Directional flute
marks are in blue, axial sole marks in green and cross-laminations in yellow. Cross-bedding in the Mount Ida Formation is
in pink. Where more than one colour is shown, the outline of the green area is derived by plotting the total of the directional structures (in blue) plus both possible axial groove directions or, in the case of flute marks plotted with crosslamination, by a simple composite of both sets of directions. The flute rose diagrams are then superimposed. Vector means
relate to sole marks where they are present, and in other cases to cross laminations. Measurements by C.McA. Powell,
AHMV and P.W. Baillie and plots are adapted from Powell et al. (1998).
Figure 2.109. Comparison of sediment thicknesses in the Melbourne Zone. Key to symbols: Ordovician: Oc Castlemaine
Gp, Our Riddell Ss, Oub Bolinda Sh, Oue Mt Easton Sh; Llandovery: Sld Deep Ck Slts; Sls Springfield Ss; Sli Chintin
Fm; Slc Costerfield Slts; Slm McAdam Ss; Sll Lazarini Slts; Slo Donnellys Ck Slts; Slp Serpentine Ck Ss; Wenlock: Smk
Kilmore Slts; Smw: Wapentake Fm; Smd: Dargile Fm; Sla: Anderson Ck Fm; Smm Melbourne Fm; Smb Bullung Slts;
Smu Murderers Hill Slts; Dargile–Lochkovian: Sui McIvor Ss; Dlm Mt Ida Fm; Dlh Humevale Slts; Sus Sinclair Valley
Sandstone; Dlw Whitelaw Slts; Emsian: Djw Wilson Ck Sh; Dw Walhalla Gp.
Above caption contains an error and is difficult to read with the symbols not in alphabetical order.. Replace with following:
Figure 2.109. Comparison of sediment thicknesses in the Melbourne Zone. Key to symbols: Djw Wilson Ck Sh; Dlh
Humevale Slts; Dlm Mt Ida Fm; Dlw Whitelaw Slts; Dw Walhalla Gp.Oc Castlemaine Gp, Oub Bolinda Sh, Oue Mt
Easton Sh; Our Riddell Ss, Sla: Anderson Ck Fm; Slc Costerfield Slts; Sld Deep Ck Slts; Sli Chintin Fm; Sll Lazarini Slts;
Slm McAdam Ss; Slo Donnellys Ck Slts; Slp Serpentine Ck Ss; Sls Springfield Ss; Smb Bullung Slts; Smd: Dargile Fm;
Smk Kilmore Slts; Smm Melbourne Fm; Smu Murderers Hill Slts; Smw: Wapentake Fm; Sui McIvor Ss; Sus Sinclair
Valley Sandstone;
Figure 2.110. Sandstone composition plots, Yarra Supergroup sandstones. Top: QFL plot. Middle and bottom: LvLmLs
plots; Lv = volcanic lithics; Lm = metasedimentary lithics (see Ingersoll & Suczek, 1979). Petrography by P.W. Baillie;
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6
TASMAN FOLD BELT SYSTEM IN VICTORIA
adapted from Powell et al. (1998).
Figure 2.111. Geological map of the Cerberean and Acheron cauldrons (Marysville Igneous Complex). Adapted from
McLaughlin (1976).
Figure 2.112. Geological map of the Dandenong Ranges cauldron. After VandenBerg (1970, 1977b), Garratt (1972).
Figure 2.113. Geological map of the Howitt Province. Adapted from Geological Survey of Victoria (1974), VandenBerg
(1977b,c); Gaul (1982, 1995); O’Halloran (1996); O’Halloran and Cas (1995); O’Halloran and Gaul (1997) and unpublished mapping by CEW.
Table 2.65. Proposed correlation scheme and rock relations for the Howitt Province and Wabonga Cauldron.
Figure 2.114. Howitt Province. Geological map of the South Blue Range area, Mansfield, on the western edge of the
Mansfield Basin (see Figure 2.113). Modified from O’Halloran and Cas (1995).
Figure 2.115. Howitt Province. Geological map and cross-section of the Avon Supergroup in the upper Howqua River
valley on northwestern margin of the Macalister Synclinorium (see Figure 2.113). Modified from O’Halloran and Gaul
(1997).
Figure 2.116. Wellington Volcanics. A: thin section of densely welded ignimbrite with well-developed perlitic texture in
lower part. B: slabbed section of finely layered volcanic ash. Graded bedding and small-scale cross bedding and scour and
fill point to a subaqueous (lacustrine) setting. Freestone Creek area. Photos by R Nott.
Figure 2.117. Avon Supergroup—Mansfield Group, Snowy Plains Formation. A: sandstone showing general upward thinning is a channel deposit and overlies red overbank mudstone and crevasse splay deposits, Licola. B: thin-bedded graded
sandstones are crevasse splay deposits interbedded with dark overbank mudstones, Barkly River Road. Photos by AHMV.
Figure 2.118. Avon Supergroup. Snowy Plains Formation at top of bluff overlies Wellington Volcanics. The Bluff, northwestern edge of the Macalister Synclinorium. Photo by AHMV.
Figure 2.119. Combyingbar Formation. A: stacked succession of facies 4 lenticular sandstone overlies facies 5 mudstone
(see Table 2.165). Genoa River. B: fine sandstone with small-scale cross-bedding in Unit 3 (see Table 2.165). Combienbar
Syncline. Photos by C.J. Simpson.
Figure 2.120. Avon Supergroup. In foreground are rocky outcrops of channel sandstones of the Snowy Plains Formation.
The wooded slope at right is part of the Mount Darling Ridge and consists of Wellington Volcanics. The skyline in the far
distance is in Pinnak Sandstone. Bryce’s Gorge, on eastern edge of the Macalister Synclinorium. Photo by VJM.
Figure 2.121. Kanimblan structures. A: map of eastern Victoria showing structural Upper Devonian basins. Orientations
of the Howitt and East Gippsland provinces are conjugate to the principal east–west stress direction. From Simpson et al.
(1997).
B: Barkly Fault and Licola Syncline, looking south. The western limb of the syncline, in Snowy Plains Formation, is overturned, and dark brown rocks in top right corner are Cambrian Licola Volcanics in the hanging wall of the fault which
here is a thrust. Licola. Photo by AHMV.
CHAPTER 3
Figure 3.1. Structural zones in Victoria showing structural trends.
Figure 3.2. Glenelg and Grampians–Stavely zones and subzones.
Figure 3.3. Glenelg and Grampians–Stavely zones. Solid geological map showing main rock units and faults. A: total
extent of the zones in Victoria mostly interpreted from magnetic data; B: southern region including the outcropping portion.
Figure 3.4. Glenelg River Metamorphic Complex. A: quartz–biotite schist with strong transposition schistosity and intrafolial folds, and boudinaged pegmatite leucosomes. 7 km east of Schofield Creek. B: transposition schistosity with folded
(left) and stretched (right) pegmatite veins in calc-silicate rocks, Killicrankie Gorge, Corea Creek. C: refolded folds in
leucosome layers in migmatitic quartz–biotite schist. D: folded S2 foliation in muscovite granite (Harrow Granodiorite).
C,D, Schofield Creek. Photos by RAC.
Figure 3.5. Grampians Group. Cataclasite bands in the Wartook Sandstone. Eastern flank of Mount Difficult along the
Issus Fault. Photo by RAC.
Figure 3.6. The Grampians Group near Halls Gap. A is taken from the Boroka Lookout, 2.5 km NW of Halls Gap, looking
SE along the Fyans Creek valley. Lake Bellfield is in the distance. The Mount William Range on the left consists of several steeply dipping thrust sheets of Red Man Bluff subgroup (rocky bands) and Silverband Formation (darker, more vegetated bands).
B is taken from Boronia Peak and looks north at the eastern escarpment of the main range. Note that the entire Mount
William Range succession of thrust sheets seen in A disappears at about the latitude of Halls Gap (seen in the valley at
left), truncated along the Fyans Fault. The wooded area just to the right of Boronia Peak marks the position of the Salamis
Fault which separates the steeply west-dipping thrust sheet 3 in which Boronia Peak is situated, from the overturned underlying thrust sheet 2 on which Peverill Peak, seen in the right middle distance, is situated. Photos by AHMV.
Figure 3.7. Relative block movements within the Benambra Terrane in eastern Victoria during the Silurian. From Willman
et al. (1999a).
Figure 3.8. Principal Victorian goldfields.
Figure 3.9. Orogenic gold mineral domains. After Hughes et al. (1997).
Figure 3.10. Stawell Zone—solid geological map showing main rock units and faults. A: entire zone in Victoria. B: largerscale map of outcropping part of the zone. C: cross-section A–B. High-strain zones in the hanging walls of the Landsborough and Percydale faults are characterised by polydeformation and west-verging tight folds. The intervening low
strain zone is characterised by symmetrical chevron folds and a single main cleavage. After Cayley and McDonald (1995).
Figure 3.11. A: geological map of the Ararat region, with post-Palaeozoic cover rocks omitted. The location and style of
sites of mineralisation are also shown. Note the numerous faults and high-grade metamorphic rocks of the Moornambool
Metamorphic Complex, the doubly-vergent hangingwall region of the Moyston Fault. The location of cross-sections 3.11B
and 3.12 are depicted in red. B: cross-section across the western Stawell Zone. The easterly dip of the Moyston Fault is
implied by high-grade metamorphic rocks in the west of the Moornambool Metamorphic Complex, and corroborated by
exposures of the fault and by overturned Delamerian Fold Belt rocks (in blue) in the fault footwall. Most faults within the
Moornambool Metamorphic Complex dip steeply west, parallel to strong schistosities. From Cayley and Taylor (in prep.).
Insets showing details of structural style adapted from Wilson et al. (1992) and projected onto section line. See figure 5.1
for more information on the deformation of this region.
Figure 3.12. Stawell goldfield. Eastwest cross-section showing the complex system of faults and back-thrusts in the
hanging wall of the Pleasant Creek Fault. Refer to figure 3.11A for section location. Much of the geology in this region
has been proven by exploration drilling around the Stawell mine. Along-strike projection from farther south provides some
control on the lower schematic parts of the section. From Cayley and Taylor (in prep.). Relative fault timing: (1) Ordovi-
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FIGURE CAPTIONS
cian–Silurian ductile deformation; (2) ductile/brittle deformation prior to Early Devonian granite intrusion (mineralisation
in Central Lode System); (3) post-intrusion brittle/ductile deformation and mineralisation.
Figure 3.13. Seismic reflection profiles across the boundary between the Delamerian and Lachlan fold belts in western
Victoria. The western profile extends from Wonwondah south of Horsham, east to the Western Highway, and therefore
crosses the eastern part of the GrampiansStavely Zone. The eastern profile extends northeast from Mt Drummond (see
fig. 3.10) to Glenorchy, 20 km northwest of Stawell. This profile crosses a buried granite beneath Mt Drummond, the
Moyston and Pleasant Creek faults, and most of the Moornambool Metamorphic Complex. Display is 1:1 assuming an
average crustal velocity of 6 km s–1. The easterly dip of many elements, including Cambrian structures within the Delamerian Fold Belt, and the younger Moyston and Pleasant Creek faults along the Lachlan Fold Belt margin, is clearly displayed. The westerly dip of many second-order structures within the metamorphic complex can also be seen. GG = Grampians Group; MFZ = Moyston Fault; PCF = Pleasant Creek Fault; EF = Escondida Fault; GF = Mehuse (and Golton)
faults; U = unknown structure. Courtesy of AGCRC (Korsch et al., 1999).
Figure 3.14. Moornambool Metamorphic Complex. Tectonic mélange of foliated dark Carrolls Amphibolite and pale
Good Morning Bill Schist. Wills Hill, near Moyston. Photo by RAC.
Figure 3.15. Moornambool Metamorphic Complex—Lexington Schist outcrop showing complex refolding of steeply
plunging folded quartz veinlets. Mount Ararat range. Coin is 30 mm across. Photo by RAC.
Figure 3.16. Moornambool Metamorphic Complex—Good Morning Bill Schist. Thin section of mylonite consisting of
brightly coloured muscovite fish within which the S schistosity is preserved. The fish are truncated by a near-horizontal Cfoliation showing dextral shear sense. Steeper late shear planes, also dextral, cut the earlier fabrics from top left to bottom
right. Crossed polars, 1.6 x 1.1 mm. Photo by RAC.
Figure 3.17. Landsborough Fault Zone. F2 folds and S2 cleavage in the hanging wall, 3 km SW of Landsborough. Photo by
RAC.
Figure 3.18. Avoca Fault Zone. A: small-scale F3 folds with east-dipping planar crenulation cleavage fold and overprint S 2
schistosity in hanging wall of the fault. Pyrenees Highway east of Avoca. B: quartz vein boudins and the S 2 schistosity in
the Beaufort Formation in the hanging wall both show asymmetry indicating west over east (right over left) sense of shear.
Railway cutting east of Linton. Photos by AHMV and RAC.
Figure 3.19. View up a short stope (30 m level) of a dilational zone filled with massive quartz along the steeply westdipping Fiddlers Fault at Fiddlers Reef. Laminated veins mark fault boundaries. Photo by RAC.
Figure 3.20. Mineralised Central Lode shear zone. Magdala orebody, Stawell. Photo by M. Gane.
Figure 3.21. Bendigo Zone—solid geological map showing main rock units and faults.
Figure 3.22. Bendigo Zone—Benambran structures. A: bedded vein showing thrust faults and deformation indicative of
horizontal movement. East cross-cut drive, No. 2 level. B: bedding-parallel vein, formed early in the Benambran Orogeny,
truncated by S1 cleavage associated with main folding event. C: small chevron folds with axial planar S 1 cleavage. A
below No. 2 level Central Deborah mine. B, C Wedderburn. Photos by CEW.
Figure 3.23. Tabberabberan structures. A: cleavage–bedding relationship in the Springfield Sandstone. Bedding is essentially parallel to group 2 Tabberabberan folds but the cleavage strikes about 30º west of this—it is not an axial planar
fabric but is probably a group 3 fabric (see VandenBerg, 1992). Photo by AHMV.
B: stereoplot showing the discordance between Tabberabberan Group 2 fold hinge orientation (355º) and Tabberabberan
group 3 cleavage trends (mean strike 324º) shown in A, Kilmore area (from VandenBerg, 1992).
Figure 3.24. Heathcote Fault Zone—geological map and cross-section of the central segment.
Figure 3.25. Structure of the Heathcote Fault Zone. A: TMI image, B: digital terrain model and C: gravity image of the
entire fault zone between Heathcote and Echuca. A shows the strongly layered nature of the Cambrian succession (mostly
Mount William Metabasalt) where undisturbed by faults, and the structurally complex northern and southern ends. D:
TMI image and E: interpreted geology of the large antiformal stack buried beneath Cainozoic sediments near Timmering.
Note that the amplitude of the stack increases up the sequence. The gently NW-plunging nature of the antiform is clearly
shown in A and C. Note also the presence of a relatively weak magnetic anomaly west of the main Cambrian belt in A—
this is interpreted as another thrust fault with Cambrian volcanics lying beneath Cainozoic sediments.
Figure 3.26. Heathcote Fault Zone. Unmigrated 15 s TWTT stacked seismic reflection profile. Ratio of vertical to horizontal scale assumes 6 km/s as average crustal velocity (Gibson et al., 1981). Numbers are seismic facies referred to in Gray
et al., 1991b. BZ = Bendigo Zone, HFZ = Heathcote Fault Zone, MZ = Melbourne Zone. 1 is the Mount William Fault.
The package of west-dipping reflectors above 4 is interpreted as Selwyn Block crust. Its apparent disappearance to the east
is due to very low signal to noise ratio in the data (see Gray et al., 1991b). Arrows indicate positions of inferred detachments. Modified from Gray et al., 1991b.
Figure 3.27. Bendigo goldfield. Bedding-parallel quartz vein in Castlemaine Group. The laminations indicate vein growth
was formed by multiple crack-seal episodes during the main period of folding. Below No. 2 level, Central Deborah mine.
Photo by A. Christie.
Figure 3.28. Regional structural cross-section of the Castlemaine goldfield. Mineralisation is confined to the Goldfield
Structural Domain. From Willman (1995).
Figure 3.29. Cross-section of the Wattle Gully mine. The main Wattle Gully Fault has a maximum dilational effect across
the east dipping limb of the anticline. The early formed bedding parallel vein, Gibblers reef, is truncated by the Wattle
Gully Fault zone. From Willman (1995).
Figure 3.30. Reverse fault with associated extension veins. Wattle Gully mine, Castlemaine. Photo by CEW.
Figure 3.31. Carshalton Anticline in Castlemaine Group, Bendigo goldfield. The fold hinge is truncated by a west-dipping
fault that is part of a mineralised ‘saddle reef’. Photo by R. Buckley, looking north.
Figure 3.32. Bendigo goldfield. Quartz veins in Castlemaine Group. The massive quartz fills a late dilational site between
two early-formed bedding-parallel laminated veins. Below No. 2 level, Central Deborah mine. Photo by A. Christie.
Figure 3.33. Saddle reef system. Isometric diagram of Deborah line of reef workings, Bendigo. After Turnbull and
McDermott (1998).
Figure 3.34. Disseminated sulphide ore—gold occurs as inclusions in disseminated arsenopyrite and pyrite surrounding
barren carbonate veins. Field of view is 6 cm. Fosterville mine. Photo by AR.
Figure 3.35. Gently east-dipping mineralised extensional arrays, Hirds mine, Heathcote. Photo by G. Morgan.
Figure 3.36. Löllingite overgrowing arsenopyrite. Desulphidation of arsenopyrite and recrystallisation of quartz are a
response to thermal metamorphism by the by the Early Devonian Natte Yallock Granite. Excelsior reef, Lower Homebush.
Photo by SM.
Figure 3.37. Three-millimetre gold–galena crystals in late aplite dyke which cuts the Nick O’Time shoot, Poverty reef,
Tarnagulla. Photo by Reef Mining NL.
Figure 3.38. Melbourne Zone—main structural division. Note that the Waranga Domain is defined purely by its structural
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TASMAN FOLD BELT SYSTEM IN VICTORIA
character whereas the two provinces are defined primarily by the character of their sediments. The Waranga Domain probably largely falls within the Darraweit Guim Province.
Figure 3.39. Melbourne Zone—solid geological map showing main rock units and faults.
Figure 3.40. Melbourne Zone cross-sections. A–B Darraweit Guim Province southwest of the Strathbogie Granodiorite.
The Highlands Thrust Fault is an early-formed Tabberabberan group 1 structure folded by large wavelength group 2 folds
that characterise the province (after Edwards et al., 1997). C–D Mount Easton Fault Zone near Mount Matlock. This
cross-section assumes insignificant faulting along the Wilson Creek Shale and is therefore probably too simple—some of
the structure in the lower portion of the cross-section is probably more complex, with development of duplexes between
the Wilson Creek Shale and Mount Easton Shale, both of which are very incompetent and are probable décollement zones.
Figure 3.41. Tyennan structures at Waratah Bay. A: recumbent isoclinal folds in Cambrian mylonite. The platy mylonite
fabric is developed in Corduroy Creek Gabbro (now mostly altered to carbonate and chrysoprase) and has been folded into
an isoclinal S-fold next to the hammer. These strongly deformed rocks are unconformably overlain by the Upper Cambrian? Bear Gully Chert and Lower Ordovician Digger Island Marlstone, which outcrops just to the right of this photo, and
on Digger Island nearby. B: Cambrian mylonite with sinistral shear sense. Note augen of ultramafic rock (e.g. just to the
right of the pencil tip). See Figure 2.6 for locations. Photos by AHMV.
Figure 3.42. Tabberabberan structures in the Darraweit Guim Province. A: group 1 thrust fault in the Melbourne Formation, looking south. Note the thin-skinned style of the deformation, with a package of more strongly deformed rocks
separating coherent packages in the hanging wall and footwall. Transport direction is toward the east. Greensborough
Railway Station north of Melbourne. B: group 2 folds in the Wapentake Formation. Structural complexity of this type is
unusual in the Darraweit Guim Province. The sediments are uncleaved. Heathcote–Nagambie Road, Jane Edwards for
scale. Photos by VJM and K. Wohlt.
Figure 3.43. Tabberabberan group 3 folds in the southern Waranga Domain. A: form surface map showing bedding, structural data and major structures of the Mine Hill Anticline, Nagambie Mines, Hill 158 open cut; B: series of section
through the Mine Hill Anticline. C: structural profile of the Whroo Anticline, Balaclava mine, Whroo showing the southward tectonic transport direction. Drawn by L. Mortimer (Mortimer, 1992; Gray & Mortimer, 1996), published with permission of the Geological Society of Australia Inc. Ticks on vertical margins of B indicate 20 m intervals and are taken
from the original. An obvious unresolved inconsistency exists between the horizontal and vertical scales in this figure;
comparison with A suggests there is no vertical exaggeration in the structures but there may be in the pit topography. The
error is probably too small to affect the reconstruction.
Figure 3.44. Mount Useful Fault Zone. Geological map showing Cambrian volcanics of the Selwyn Block exposed in
erosional windows and surrounding sedimentary rocks sediments. Note the lateral disappearance of rock units, interpreted
to be due to thin-skinned faults. From VandenBerg et al., 1995.
Figure 3.45. Mount Useful Fault Zone. Cross-sections showing thin-skinned nature of structures in sedimentary rocks
overlying Cambrian volcanics of the Selwyn Block. Units and colours are as in figure 3.44. The Fullarton Fault (3) is a
Tabberabberan group 1 structure and late-stage faults (4) are group 2 structures. From VandenBerg et al., 1995.
Figure 3.46. Mount Useful Fault Zone. A: tight inclined F1 fold couple. Hammer is in hinge of syncline, with anticline
farther right showing well-developed fanning cleavage in thick-bedded sandstone. B: well-developed S2 vertical crenulation cleavage overprints S1 slaty cleavage dipping to the left. Both in Serpentine Creek Sandstone Jamieson–Licola Road
near Mount Skene. Photos by AHMV.
Figure 3.47. Waratah Fault. Broken Formation in the southern segment of the fault, south of Walkerville, Waratah Bay
(see fig. 2.6). The geometry of shear planes in the Liptrap Formation on this inclined outcrop surface indicates sinistral
strike-slip displacement during the Tabberabberan Orogeny. Photo by RAC.
Figure 3.48. Bell Point Fault Zone, looking south (see fig. 2.6). Western edge of the shear zone shows strongly developed
shear fabric (here with dextral sense) in dark fault rock that is mainly derived from Cambrian metabasalt. Pale rock in
bottom right is Digger Island Marlstone overlying Maitland Beach Volcanics. Pale rocks within mélange zone are large
blocks of the same rock, as well as exotic blocks of rhyolite and Bell Point Limestone. This fault was active during the
Tabberabberan Orogeny Photo by AHMV.
Figure 3.49. Bell Point Fault Zone. Where exposed just south of Digger Island, the shear zone is marked by a well developed near-vertical cleavage-like fabric in Digger Island Marlstone that rapidly becomes pervasive and can be mistaken for
bedding. Waratah Bay, south of Digger Island (see Fig. 2.6).
Figure 3.50. Liptrap Formation—Tabberabberan folds near Cape Liptrap, looking south. A: multiple tight folds with very
weak cleavage development in the hinge region of a larger anticline; Bernadette de Corte for scale. B: syncline, with faultdisplaced sandstone bed in Liptrap Formation at the same locality. Note well developed divergent cleavage in mudstone
and radial fracture cleavage in sandstones. Peter O’Shea for scale stands next to adjacent anticlinal hinge. Photos by R.
King, RAC.
Figure 3.51. Schematic isometric diagram of Cohens shear zone. From Tomlinson (1990).
Figure 3.52. Mineralised quartz–carbonate veins in sericite–carbonate altered gabbro dyke. A1 mine, Woods Point Dyke
Swarm. Photo by CEW.
Figure 3.53. Paragenesis of alteration and ore minerals in the Brunswick mine, Costerfield goldfield. Vein quartz is not
shown. From Gao and Kwak (1997).
Figure 3.54. Element distribution in siltstone against sample distance from the Brunswick vein, Brunswick
mine. From Gao and Kwak (1997).
Figure 3.55. Tabberabbera Zone. A: solid geological map of entire zone showing northwestern extension under Murray
Basin; B: map of the main portion of the zone; C: cross-sections AB and CD in the Tabberabbera and part Omeo Zone.
Section AB after Fergusson (1987a), Willman et al. (1999a) and unpublished GSV data. Inset section: south-verging
Benambran F2 folds truncated by Devonian mineralised faults in the Golden Shamrock adit near Cassilis.
Figure 3.56. Benambran structures. A: stripy S1 cleavage in thick sandstone; B: strong S1 cleavage in thin sandstone and
mudstone. Pinnak Sandstone. Tambo River near Double Bridges Creek. Photos by AHMV.
Figure 3.57. Well developed S2 cleavage in thin-bedded Pinnak Sandstone. A: outcrop showing cleavage crenulating the
bedding and forming discrete domains in most sand-rich beds; Tambo River near Double Bridges Creek. B: thin section
showing the overprinting by this cleavage of the earlier S1 that lies at a low angle to bedding. Omeo Highway near Fred’s
Track. Plane polarised light, 4 x 2.7 mm. Photos by AHMV and J.P. Sims.
Figure 3.58. Seismic profile to the north of Dookie. The profile is oriented north-to-right and shows the Governor Fault as
a gently north dipping thrust beneath the post-Palaeozoic Ovens Graben. Two-way-time shown in seconds. (Energy &
Minerals Victoria 1996 Numurkah Trough Seismic Survey, Line MEMV96-12.)
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Figure 3.59. Wonnangatta Fault—broken formation. Bedding (in Pinnak Sandstone) has been disrupted by several generations of fractures all giving a sinistral shear sense in this photo. Wonnangatta River near Crooked River. Photo by AHMV.
Figure 3.60. Omeo Zone. A: solid geological map and B: cross-sections showing main rock units and faults.
Figure 3.61. Kancoona Fault near Yackandandah. A: ternary radiometric image (K = red, Th = green, U = blue) with a
high potassium (K) response of outcropping granites. B: simplified geology with Mudgeegonga (G179), Mount Stanley
(G183) and southern Yackandandah (G177) granites and surrounding Adaminaby Group (blue). C: total magnetic intensity image (red = high, blue = low). The Mudgeegonga Granite shows strong magnetic zoning in contrast to the geochemically related Mount Stanley and Yackandandah granites, except in an outer zone, clearly visible in the radiometric data,
that is nonmagnetic. The Mudgeegonga Granite has been offset by a late (Tabberabberan Orogeny) sinistral movement
along the Kancoona Fault. Note that the nonmagnetic core shows a smaller offset on the fault than the outer zones, especially in the southeast. This is clear evidence that the intrusion occurred during faulting.
D: mylonite along the fault. Large K-feldspar phenocrysts in the parent Mudgeegonga Granite have been rounded and
segmented into bookshelf aggregates, and thin seams of fine mylonite traverse the rock. Brown lenticles are drawn-out
enclaves. Sense of displacement is sinistral. Kinchington Creek near Bruarong. Photo by AHMV.
Figure 3.62. Kiewa valley running along the Kiewa Fault, a broad zone of mylonite and foliated granite, with amphibolite
facies gneiss on each side of the valley. The west-flowing valley in the middle distance is Mountain Creek which follows
the Cainozoic Tawonga Fault. Looking NW from Mount Bogong. Photo by VJM.
Figure 3.63. Ensay Shear Zone mylonite. Thin section of mylonite derived from granite, showing dextral shear. Dark rock
is ultramylonite with folded thin ribbons, pale rock is mylonite with ribbon quartz and feldspar porphyroclasts. Livingstone Creek. Plane polarised light, 4 x 2.7 mm. Photo by VJM.
Figure 3.64. Geological map of the Cassilis–Ensay region, southern Omeo Zone (left) with total magnetic intensity image
(red = high, blue = low) on right. Adapted from Willman et al. (1999a).
Figure 3.65. Ceresa reef, Cassilis goldfield, Omeo Zone. Quartz–pyrite vein within a brittle fault truncated by a sinistral
strike-slip fault. Roof of Golden Shamrock Adit. Photo by CEW.
Figure 3.66. Deddick Zone—solid geological map showing main rock units and faults.
Figure 3.67. Kuark Zone. A: solid geological map and B: cross-sections showing main rock units and faults.
Figure 3.68. Pheasant Creek Fault. A: outcrop showing mylonitic foliation in Cape Conran Granite (G42) folded into
chevron-style late folds. Cape Conran (west). B: outcrop showing plastically deformed Pinnak Sandstone with sandstone
fold hinges forming boudins. Cape Conran (east). Photo by AHMV.
Figure 3.69. McLauchlan Fault—broken formation and cataclasite. The parent rock, Pinnak Sandstone, has been broken
into pebble to cobble-sized fragments, and in places comminuted into cataclasite. Yalmy Road near Yalmy River. Photo
by AHMV.
Figure 3.70. Mallacoota Zone—solid geological map showing main rock units and faults.
Figure 3.71. Narooma Accretionary Complex, Mallacoota Zone. Folded Ordovician sandstone, mudstone and chert. Late
open F2 folds and associated cleavage overprint early F1 tight to isoclinal folds (shown in detail in B). North of Fisherman’s Rocks, Mallacoota area. Photo by CEW.
Figure 3.72. Fiddlers Green Shear Zone. Outcrop (A) and thin section (B) of ultramylonite bands in Weeragua Granodiorite (G24). The dark green fine-grained band in B consists almost entirely of epidote whereas lighter bands are quartz-rich.
Crossed polars, 6.8 x 10.4 mm. Winnot Creek. Photos by C.J. Simpson.
Figure 4.1. Maps of Victoria showing plutons coloured according to age and type (S, I, A, G (gabbro) and U (unclassified)). Only those plutons that crop out or have been drilled are numbered. Note that the legends for A (western half) and
and B (eastern half) are different.
Figure 4.2. Graph of intrusion ages across Victoria. Intrusions are coloured according to type, and different dating methods are shown by different symbol types. Error bars are  2. Plutons are identified by their G numbers except where they
belong to a batholith composed of several plutons. Sources are given in Appendix 1. Where mineralised, principal metallogeny is shown. VIMP4 is a diamond drillhole in the Horsham 1:250 000 sheet area (Maher et al., 1997).
Figure 4.3. Fe2O3/FeO versus SiO2 for copper, tungsten, molybdenum and tin mineralisation in Victorian granites. For
granites dominated by fractional crystallisation, copper is associated with more mafic granite, tungsten with intermediate
granite and molybdenum and tin with felsic, fractionated granite. The copper–molybdenum series is associated with oxidised granite, tin with more reduced granite and tungsten occurs in both types (Blevin & Chappell, 1995).
Figure 4.4. Graph of magmatic–hydrothermal mineralisation (source intrusion) ages across Victoria.
Figure 4.5. Map showing the metallogenic associations of mineralised plutons.
Figure 4.6. Map of basement terranes in southern Tasman Fold Belt, after White and Chappell (1988) and Chappell et al.
(1988). Important faults are also shown.
Figure 4.7. Slab of A-type Dergholm Granite from Baileys Rocks, showing pink alkali feldspar, some of which are
rimmed by grey-green plagioclase. Slab 19 x 13 cm.
Figure 4.8. Dartmouth Granite. A: foliated migmatitic granite with numerous metasedimentary enclaves. B: massive granite with numerous metasedimentary enclaves. From 2 km east of Dartmouth Dam spillway and from spillway. Photos by
BAS and AHMV.
Figure 4.9. Magnetic image of “Lalbert Batholith”, northern Stawell Zone. This also shows probable syn-intrusive dextral
deformation.
Figure 4.10. Wedderburn Granite (G345), northwestern Bendigo Zone. A: magnetic image and B: radiometric K–Th–U image. The resistant nonmagnetic, felsic core shows as pink (K-rich), with radial drainage carrying K-rich sand away from the outcrops across the poorly outcropping (dark green in B) nonmagnetic rim. The northern half of the pluton is masked by Cainozoic cover (light green in B). Data from
CRAE surveys.
Figure 4.11. Tarnagulla Granite (G351), western Bendigo Zone. Magnetic image showing numerous concentric magnetic
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TASMAN FOLD BELT SYSTEM IN VICTORIA
and nonmagnetic zones, with the centre of each successive magma pulse describing a spiral pattern. Data from
AGSO/GSV survey.
Figure 4.12. Buffalo Granodiorite, capped by an extensive plateau at 1400–1600 m (The Horn is the highest point at 1723
m). This is 400–600 m higher than the ridgetops in Pinnak Sandstone in the middle distance, and only slightly lower than
Mount Hotham from which this view is seen. Photo by VJM.
Figure 4.13. Wilsons Promontory Batholith. A: granite exposed at Cleft Island. B: spiral enclave train in garnet-rich phase
of the Wilsons Promontory Granite (G260), Norman Bay. Photos by AHMV and VJM.
Figure 4.14. Rileys Creek Granodiorite (G137) at Rileys Creek. Strongly foliated granodiorite (lighter) with stretched
quartz diorite enclaves (darker). Photo VJM.
Figure 4.15. Tors of A-type Ellery Granite (G37), Mount Ellery. Photo by AHMV.
Figure 4.16. Cobaw Batholith. Radiometric image showing the contrast between the component granites. The ring pluton,
Pyalong Granodiorite (G283 = G2 of Stewart, 1966) is a nonmagnetic S-type with a high thorium response (light green)
whereas the central Baynton Granodiorite (G284 = G3) and the small satellite Beauvallet Granodiorite (G285 = G4) that
breaks the ring in the south are magnetic, hornblende-bearing I-types with high K and low Th responses (bright red). Dark
colours are from mafic volcanics, including the narrow Heathcote Volcanics in the lower right. White in the northwestern
corner is the Harcourt Granodiorite, and bright colours in the south are due to alkaline Cainozoic basaltic volcanics.
Figure 5.1. Schematic series showing progressive development of Moyston Fault through the process of tectonic wedging.
A: 495–460 Ma—Late Cambrian to end Middle Ordovician. Western Lachlan margin configuration prior to the onset of
the Benambran Orogeny. B: 455–425 Ma—Late Ordovician to Early Silurian. Onset of Benambran orogenesis leads to
shortening and thickening of sea-floor crust and overlying turbidite wedge. The thickening Lachlan Fold Belt is emplaced
onto the Delamerian Fold Belt continent margin along the proto-Moyston Fault, requiring the formation of a ‘tectonic
wedge‘. Subsequent downloading may have initiated basin-capture of the Grampians Group beginning in the Ordovician.
The Lachlan Fold Belt remains submarine and the Grampians sediments are derived entirely from the west. C: 430–425
Ma—Early-Late Silurian. Deposition of the Grampians Group. Widespread emergence of the western Lachlan Fold Belt
through duplexing in the mid-crust and folding and fault-imbrication of the upper crust. As displacement on the Moyston
Fault grows, a large tectonic wedge develops progressively in its hanging wall, bringing mid-crustal levels towards the
surface. The increased topography of the Lachlan Fold Belt allows faults to propagate west onto the low-relief Delamerian
Fold Belt margin to deform the Grampians Group cover sequence as a foreland thrust-and-fold belt. D: 420 Ma—Late
Silurian. The Moyston Fault is fully developed, with exhumation of a broad high-grade region—the Moornambool Metamorphic Complex—in the hanging wall. The Lachlan Fold Belt has breached west onto the Delamerian Fold Belt to incorporate the Grampians Group as a basement-cover thrust-and-fold belt. From Cayley and Taylor (in prep.). See figures
3.11 and 3.12 for map and detailed cross-sections.
Figure 5.2. Map showing the extent of the Selwyn Block and its links with Tasmania. From Cayley et al. (in prep.).
Figure 5.3. Vergence directions in structural zones—southern Lachlan Fold Belt. The timing of vergence directions is
indicated by colour: red = Benambran, blue = Bindian, green = Tabberabberan (G1, 2 and 3 refer to groups, see 3.2.3—
Melbourne Zone for explanation). The colour of the arrow head denotes the timing of the main deformation. Subsequent
deformations are indicated by additional colour bars in the arrow tail. The timing and movement sense of major faults is
similarly indicated by colour. New South Wales data after Glen (1992).
Figure 5.4. Schematic diagram showing the southerly tectonic transport of the Benambra Terrane between the Early Silurian and Middle Devonian A: Benambran Orogeny. The Benambra Terrane is part of the northern Lachlan Fold Belt,
about 600 km northwest of its present day position. Oblique subduction associated with the Narooma Accretionary Complex initiates the Baragwanath Transform, a dextral strike-slip fault. The Molong Volcanic Arc is deformed and incorporated into the Benambra Terrane. The Melbourne Zone is a foreland basin to the uplifted Stawell and Bendigo zones.
B: Late Silurian. The major period of southerly transport of the Benambra Terrane. This includes a transtensional event in
the Late Silurian that opens a series of marine grabens along major faults (TT = Tumut Trough, LCG = Limestone Creek
Graben and BG = Barmouth Group). A later dextral transpressional event, the Bindian Orogeny, deforms the graben contents. The Baragwanath Transform begins to overthrust the northern Bendigo Zone. The Narooma Accretionary Complex
has been deformed and incorporated into the eastern Benambra Terrane prior to the Late Silurian.
C: Late Early Devonian. The Benambra Terrane reaches its most southerly position with respect to the Australian craton
and is now supplying detritus to the Melbourne Zone. Eastwest convergence associated with the Tabberabberan Orogeny
begins to deform the Melbourne Zone and amalgamate the Whitelaw and Benambra terranes. The Baragwanath Transform
is gradually converted from a strike-slip fault to a northeast- to north-dipping thrust fault Some minor dextral displacement continues where the fault trends northwesterly.
D: end of Tabberabberan Orogeny. The Whitelaw and Benambra terranes are now amalgamated and in their present day
positions with respect to the Australian craton. The strike-slip Baragwanath Transform has been converted into the contractional Governor Fault that has resulted in significant overthrusting of the Benambra Terrane over the eastern and
northeastern margin of the Whitelaw Terrane.
Figure 5.5. Map of Victoria showing distribution of different associations of Neoproterozoic to Cambrian volcanic rocks.
They are divided into calc-alkaline, tholeiitic-boninitic-ultramafic, and within plate to MORB associations. The surface
extent of the Delamerian Fold Belt and the surface and subsurface extent of the Selwyn Block is also indicated.
Figure 5.6. Map showing structural zones and main structural features. Red lines show positions of figures depicting
structural development. A–B: figure 5.7; C–D: figure 5.8, E–F: figure 5.9, G–H: figure 5.10
Figure 5.7. Series of schematic diagrams depicting the Cambrian evolution of the eastern Delamerian Fold Belt in western
Victoria along section A–B of Figure 5.6.
A: 540–520 Ma—Early to mid-Cambrian. Deposition of Moralana Supergroup into the Stansbury Basin, along the rifted
margin of Rodinia. Note eruption of rift-tholeiite Truro Volcanics, and incorporation of limestone olistoliths. An active arc
is perhaps located to the east. A palaeo-Pacific passive margin is already present at this time, and may have served as a
barrier to Early–Middle Cambrian sedimentation.
B: 515–510 Ma—Middle Cambrian. Delamerian Orogeny Phase 1, perhaps in part a consequence of arc–continent collision along the Escondida Fault, a Delamerian(?) suture. Note fault-emplacement of Hummocks Serpentinite into overlying
metasedimentary sequence. Palaeo-Pacific crust farther east remains undeformed.
C: 500 Ma—Late Cambrian. Post-collisional extension and collapse along the margin of the accreted Delamerian Fold
Belt. Widespread post-collisional calc-alkaline volcanism (Mount Stavely Volcanic Complex). Sediments eroded from
newly uplifted Delamerian Fold Belt to the west are shed farther east (Glenthompson Sandstone, largely burying the accreted arc–fore-arc complex), and spill into the palaeo-Pacific for the first time.
D: 495 Ma—Late Cambrian. Delamerian Orogeny Phase 2 involves fault-imbrication of post-collisional volcanics, fault
juxtaposition of Glenelg River Metamorphic Complex across Yarramyljup Fault.
E: 490 Ma—Late Cambrian: possible minor extension along Escondida Fault, post-tectonic granite intrusion.
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Figure 5.8. Series of schematic diagrams depicting the Cambrian–Middle Devonian evolution of the western Lachlan Fold
Belt (Whitelaw Terrane) in western Victoria. See Figure 5.11 for approximate location.
A:490–460 Ma—Late Cambrian to Ordovician. Deposition of deep marine turbidites (St Arnaud and Castlemaine groups)
in an oceanic setting off the passive Australian continental margin. Deposition of condensed sequence on the Selwyn
Block, which lay outboard of the continent margin at this time. Note deposition of Bear Gully Chert and Digger Island
Marlstone unconformably on parts of the Selwyn Block that reach sea-level.
B: 450–430 Ma—Late Ordovician–Early Silurian. Onset of Benambran Orogeny in the western Lachlan Fold Belt, caused
by east–west convergence between the Selwyn Block and the future Glenelg, Stawell and Bendigo zones. The Delamerian
Fold Belt margin is downwarped by the overthrusting and thickening Lachlan Fold Belt and this initiates basin capture of
the transitional facies (Grampians Group). The developing Lachlan Fold Belt remains submarine.
C:430–420 Ma—Llandovery to Wenlock. The Selwyn Block and Stawell and Bendigo zones are accreted onto the
Delamerian Fold Belt. The emergent Lachlan Fold Belt breaches onto Delamerian Fold Belt crust along the Moyston
Fault, terminating deposition of the Grampians Group, which is incorporated into the Lachlan Fold Belt as a basement
cover thrust-and-fold belt. The Bendigo Zone is thrust over the Selwyn Block, which is downwarped to form a foreland
basin. Sediment eroded from the folded and uplifted western Whitelaw Terrane is deposited into this as the Yarra Supergroup.
D: 420–410 Ma—Late Silurian. At the western Lachlan Fold Belt margin, post-collisional extensional collapse along
Moyston Fault suture results in fault-segmentation of the Grampians Group, quickly followed by post-tectonic granite
intrusion.
E: 410–395 Ma—Early Devonian: widespread post-tectonic magmatic activity occurs in the western Whitelaw Terrane,
mainly intrusive but including eruption of Rocklands Volcanics. The Melbourne Zone foreland basin fills to shoreface
facies in the western part, followed shortly by arrival of sediment from the east (Walhalla Group), which floods the region
and heralds the arrival of the Benambra Terrane along the Baragwanath Transform.
F: 385 Ma—Middle Devonian. The Tabberabberan Orogeny marks the accretion of the Benambra and Whitelaw terranes
along the Governor Fault. Convergence between the Benambra Terrane and the Selwyn Block results in marginal fault
reactivation and deformation of Melbourne Zone cover sequence. East-vergent Mount Useful Fault Zone links west into
the reactivated Mount William Fault detachment. Widespread post-tectonic granite intrusion occurs in package overlying
the Selwyn Block. In Late Devonian times, the Governor Fault will be covered by continental rocks of the Howitt Province.
Figure 5.9. Schematic figures depicting the Early Silurian–Middle Devonian evolution of the western Benambra Terrane
(Tabberabbera and Omeo zones ) in eastern Victoria along a NE--oriented section shown in Fig 5.6. The mid-Ordovician
tectonic setting is similar to that shown in Figure 5.10A.
A: end of the Benambran Orogeny (~430 Ma). The Tabberabbera Zone was located up to 600 km north-north-west of its
present location. Southwest directed compression raised deeper Cambrian rocks up east-dipping listric thrust faults verging towards the Delamerian Fold Belt. The Omeo Zone was probably connected to the Tabberabbera Zone but was more
strongly affected by low pressure  high temperature metamorphism and intrusion of S-type granites. The Tallangatta
Creek Fault Zone and Gilmore Fault were active at this time.
B: Late Silurian (~420 Ma): southward movement of the Benambra Terrane was accommodated by dextral strike-slip
movement along the Baragwanath Transform. Extension was widespread but the effects were localised along major faults
where deposition of volcanics and sediments filled several grabens.
C: Early Devonian Bindian Orogeny (~415 Ma): major southward transport of the Benambra Terrane was associated with
regional compression causing the Omeo Zone to act as a rigid thrust sheet overriding the Molong Volcanic Arc. Movement of the terrane was now accommodated along a greater number of strike-slip faults causing deformation of Late Silurian grabens.
D: Early Devonian, post-Bindian Orogeny (~400 Ma): southward movement was partitioned almost entirely along the
Baragwanath Transform and the Benambra Terrane was close enough to provide detritus to the Melbourne Zone for the
first time. Localised extension caused deposition of volcanics and sediments in a series of grabens and calderas. I-type
granites of the Boggy Plain Supersuite resulted from melting of the deeply buried Molong Volcanic Arc.
E: by the close of the Tabberabberan Orogeny (~370 Ma), regional east–west compression had caused amalgamation of
the Benambra and Whitelaw terranes across the Governor Fault and folding of Early Devonian grabens.
Figure 5.10. Schematic figures showing tectonic evolution of Omeo, Deddick, Kuark and Mallacoota zones; see figure 5.6
for location.
A: mid-Ordovician. Westward subduction of oceanic crust forms the Narooma Accretionary Complex in the Mallacoota
Zone and the Molong Volcanic Arc (now mainly in New South Wales). The Omeo Zone forms the back-arc basin in
which Ordovician turbidites of the Adaminaby Group are deposited on possible Cambrian deep-water sediments resting
on oceanic crust. The fore-arc region (Deddick, Kuark and Mallacoota zones) is also postulated to have oceanic crust
(including Cambrian shale and chert) overlain by Adaminaby Group turbidites. Limestones are deposited around the arc
volcanoes, which are dominantly submarine.
B: Early Silurian—Benambran Orogeny. Mainly south-directed transport forms the Yalmy Fold and Thrust Belt as well as
other south-directed thrusts, and folding and faulting affect the entire crust. High-T/low-P metamorphism is widespread in
the middle crust, in part assisted by mantle-derived mafic magma intruding the lower crust, forming the Omeo and Kuark
metamorphic complexes. The base of the Molong Volcanic Arc is also metamorphosed. Melting of Pinnak Sandstone in
the middle crust generates S-type granites, some of which post-date most deformation.
C: Late Silurian. Local crustal extension forms the Limestone Creek and Sardine Creek grabens, with felsic volcanics
prominent in the former. I-type granites are locally emplaced. A broad limestone shelf fringes the Limestone Creek Graben
and prevents detritus from the Molong Volcanic Arc entering the graben.
D: Early Devonian—Bindian Orogeny. Much of the Omeo Zone moves SSE as a large thrust sheet that overrides the Molong Volcanic Arc, thickening the crust, pushing the arc to lower crustal levels and deforming the Limestone Creek Graben. Mid-crustal rocks are exposed along the Indi Fault, and further movement is taken up along the McLauchlan Fault
which cuts the earlier Yalmy Fold and Thrust Belt. Movement probably also occurs along the Pheasant Creek Fault, exposing the Kuark Metamorphic Complex. I-type granites are generated by melting of mafic lower crustal material, with
mantle magmas possibly contributing.
E: Early Devonian—post-Bindian Orogeny. Limited crustal extension forms the Buchan Rift, which fills with Snowy
River Volcanics as the lower crust is melted under the high thermal gradient of the rifting environment. Thermal equilibration of the base of the Molong Volcanic Arc causes it to melt, giving rise to I-type plutons of the Boggy Plain Supersuite.
The effects of the Tabberabberan Orogeny in the Middle Devonian were restricted to open folding and erosion of the
Buchan Rift fill, and further erosion of older rocks.
Figure 5.11. Regional sedimentary and volcanic facies distribution across the Benambra Terrane. The overall direction is
from west to east. The diagram is from Scheibner (1997) but has been greatly simplified, and slightly modified.
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TASMAN FOLD BELT SYSTEM IN VICTORIA
Key to rock units: 1 Avon Supergp; 2 Mulga Downs Gp; 3 Hervey Gp; 4 Dulladerry Volcs; 5 Hatchery Ck Cgl; 6 Combyingbar Fm; 7 Catombal and Merrimbula gps; 8 Lambie Gp; 9 Boyd and Comerong volcs; 10 Wentworth Gp; 11 Barmouth
Gp; 12 Cobar Supergp and correlatives; 13 Buchan Gp; 14 Snowy River Volcs; 15 Wombat Ck Gp and Mitta Mitta Rhyolite; 16 Yarra Yarra Ck Gp; 17 Talingaboolba Fm; 18 Mineral Hill Volcs; 19 Kopyje Gp; 20 Trundle and Wallingalair
Gps; 21 Ootha and Yiddah fms, Derriwong Gp; 22 Forbes Gp; 23 Combaning Fm; 24 Trewilga Fm; 25 Stockingbingal
Fm and Cootamundra Gp; 27 Frampton Volcs; 28 Byron Ra Gp; 29 Boraig Gp; 30 Blowering Fm; 31 Goobarragandra
Volcs; 32 Mountain Ck Volcs; 33 Kellys Plain Volcs; 34 Cooleman Plains Gp; 35 Bredbo Gp; 36 Toongi Gp, Hyandra
Volcs; 37 Canowindra Porphyry; 38 Cudal Gp; 39 Murrumbidgee Gp; 40 Black Range Volcs; 41 Yass and Canberra fms,
Laidlaw, Hawkins, Colinton volcs; 42 Errinundra Gp; 43 Sardine Cgl; 44 Gregra Gp; 45 Mumbil Gp and correlatives; 46
Waugoola Gp; 47 Crudine Gp; 49 Mt Fairy and Hoskinstown gps; 50 Kandos and Queens Pinch gps; 51 Tannabutta Gp;
52 Bindook Porphyry; 53 Mulwary, Murrays Flats and Mt Fairy gps; 54 Taralga Gp; 55 Towrang and Wollondilly beds,
Long Flat Volcs, De Drack Fm; 56 Cobbannah Gp; 57 Bendoc Gp; 58 Yalmy Gp; 59 Cotton Fm; 60 Goonumbla Volcs
and correlative; 61 Temora Volcs; 62 Bronxhome and Bribbaree fms; 63 Illabo Fm; 64 Undifferentiated (probably Bendoc
Gp); 65 Tantangara Fm; 66 Angullong and Malachis Hill fms; 67 Black Mtn Ss, State Circle Sh; 68 Ashburnia Gp; 69
Cabonne Gp; 70 Rockley Volcs; 71 Bullongong Sh; 72 Sofala and Rockley Volcs, Burranah Fm; 73 Bogolo Fm.