RPTS 340 Notes
Unit 4: Race and Ethnicity
Race, Ethnicity, and Leisure
I. Definitions: Race, Ethnicity, Minority Group, and Racism
A. Race. “A racial group is not something naturally generated as part of the self-evident order of the
universe, but is a social group that persons inside or outside the group have decided is important to
single out as inferior or superior, typically on the basis of real or alleged physical characteristics
subjectively selected.” (Feagin, 1989, pp. 6-7)
B. Ethnic Group. A group socially distinguished or set apart, by others or by itself, primarily on the basis
of cultural or nationality characteristics. A critical dimension of this definition is reference to a
common ancestry (both real and mythical).
C. What is the significance of defining race and ethnicity in social terms? It may be inappropriate to
distinguish groups on the basis of "self-evident" and genetically fixed characteristics. [For example,
while the German Nazis classified Jews as a race, the identification of Jews on the basis of physical
characteristics was problematic. To reliably identify Jews, Nazis, had to rely primarily on cultural and
ancestral features.] Moreover, aspects of social life that are related to race and ethnicity (employment
patterns, educational attainment, leisure patterns) are matters which are linked to people's subjective
and collective definitions rather than biological determinism.
D. Minority groups are generally referred to as groups occupying a subordinate position in society. The
basis of subordination is groups' physical and cultural characteristics. Majority groups are dominant
groups who have superior rights and advantages.
E. As Feagin (1989) notes, these concepts imply the presence of a system of “racial and ethnic
stratification, a ranking system in the form of a hierarchy of more and less powerful groups (p. 10).
Stratification means that rewards, prestige, privileges, and access to resources are closely associated
with a person's status (in this case, race or ethnicity). It may be misleading to use the terms minority
and majority groups since a majority group may actually be numerically the minority, as exemplified in
a number of African countries.
F. Racism. Has generally been conceived in one of two ways.
1. Personal attitudes or cultural values. Racism here is a form of ethnocentrism whereby one’s own
group is thought to be “inherently” superior to other races.
2. An assortment of “acts or institutional procedures [which] help create or perpetuate sets of
privileges for whites and exclusions and deprivations for minority groups” (Chesler, 1976, p. 22).
II. Theories of Race Relations
A. Order theories - tend to assume that ethnic and racial groups are naturally assimilated into the society
over time. Order theories assume that there is a progressive adaptation to the dominant culture and
stability in intergroup relations. Further, these theories emphasize the underlying egalitarian nature of
American institutions. By implication, ethnic and racial disharmony will disappear, as white
Americans will progressively realize that racial intolerance is at odds with the democratic principles of
the Declaration of Independence.
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B. Power-conflict theories - these theories assume that inter-group relationships in a society are hostile
and unequal. Genocide and racial stratification are fundamental outcomes explained by these types of
theories. These theories explain race and ethnic relations in terms of economic and political
exploitation and subordination.
III. Explaining differences in leisure patterns among ethnic and racial groups
A. Level of assimilation: Assimilation can be defined as “a process in which an individual or group take
over the [core] culture and identity of another group and become part of that group."
1. Immigrant may be constrained by poor language skills, disrupted social relations, and time and
financial costs associated with establishing a new household.
2. There are different levels of assimilation.
a. Cultural assimilation: refers to a minority group’s acceptance of the dominant cultural patterns
of the host society (e.g., language, religion, diet, dress, leisure patterns).
b. Structural assimilation: refers to the social, economic, and political integration of minorities
into mainstream society.
3. Selective acculturation refers to the assimilation of immigrant groups in terms of structural
arrangements (economic, educational, and political parity), with the retention of cultural and
nationality traits from the group's host country.
B. Discrimination: Non-use of park, recreation, and tourism resources may be limited by hostile (actual or
perceived) actions carried out by other visitors and/or employees.
C. Ethnicity hypothesis: An identifiable set of minority group activities stems from a distinct subculture.
Differences in recreation reflect distinct social values, norms, roles, tastes, and styles.
1. Leisure may be culturally expressive.
2. Leisure may be used for boundary maintenance.
D. Marginality hypothesis: Differences between majority group and minority group leisure are due to
differential access to recreation resources. Differential access is a function of (a) lower incomes
among minority group members, and (b) inequality in distribution of recreation facilities and other
public goods.
A model for understanding the relationship between race/ethnic group
membership and recreation behavior
Historical
experiences and
economic factors
Non material
culture: values and
beliefs
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Behavior:
participation in
recreation activities