WP5 Annotated Bibliography: Marine Protected Areas with
emphasis on Fisheries Management
There is an increasingly large volume of literature addressing marine protected areas (MPAs)
covering general reviews, ecological and demographic theory, empirical studies, and
socioeconomic issues. This annotated bibliography is not meant to be an exhaustive list,
however it will hopefully provide initial coverage of the main issues in the field, and highlight
some of the main issues and areas of debate. The papers in this bibliography are listed to
provide a structured entry into the literature in the field, especially literature pertaining to the
studies in INCOFISH Work Package 5.
On MPAs: General Theory and Reviews
1
Hilborn et al 2004 When can marine reserves improve fisheries management?
Ocean & Coastal Management 47:197-205
A clear, concise, realistic and well reasoned discussion of the potential benefits and pitfalls of
the use of MPAs for fisheries management. The paper does not examine specific case studies,
but highlights the main expected benefits of MPAs, and where and when they are likely to
occur. Also highlights some of the common misconceptions related to MPAs, and the cases
where MPAs are expected to be of little use (or worse) compared to traditional fisheries
management.
2
Russ, G.R. 2002 Marine reserves as reef fisheries management tools: yet another
review. In: Coral reef fishes: dynamics and diversity in a complex ecosystem. Ed: Sale,
P.F., Academic Press, London, 2002; pp421.
A wide ranging report examining the general theory underpinning marine reserves, specific
case studies, and wider empirical evidence of the effects of marine reserves with special
emphasis on reef fisheries. The general conclusion of the report is that there is insufficient
empirical data of sufficient quality at this time to come to any firm conclusions as to the
merits, or otherwise, of marine reserves. However, due to the strength of the theoretical
arguments for marine reserves, it is concluded that the lack of strong empirical information
should not stand in the way of the implementation of marine reserves.
On MPAs: Empirical Studies
3
Halpern, B.S. 2003 The impact of marine reserves: do reserves work and does
size matter? Ecological Applications 13:S117-S137
A meta analysis of 89 studies of the effect of marine reserves. The general conclusion is that
density, biomass, size and species richness are higher in reserves compared with outside
reserves, or before reserve designation. However, this does not necessarily imply that fishery
yield increases outside reserves.
Although all the studies examined had either a spatial or temporal control, very few had a full
Before-After-Control-Impact-Pairs (BACIP) design. Furthermore duration of protection was
not examined. The study found that reserve size seemed to have little impact on proportional
reserve effect. It should be noted that a majority of the reserves studied are based around
(rocky or coral) reefs, therefore the study may be skewed towards the effect of reserves on
sedentary or sessile species.
4
Babcock, R.C. et al 1999 Changes in community structure in temperate marine
reserves. Marine Ecology Progress Series 189:125-134
This paper examined the effects of MPAs beyond simply reducing fishery mortality of target
species. Theoretical studies have suggested that increased predator numbers within a reserve
can lead to a trophic cascade, whereby taxa two or more trophic levels below a target species
show a response to the change in management (see Paper 11 below). In the case examined,
reduction in fish and invertebrate urchin-predators lead to increased urchin numbers and
hence increased grazing pressure. Within the reserves, fish and invertebrate urchin-predators
had increased in number and mean size, leading to a reduction in urchin numbers and an
increase in macroalgal abundance. The increased macroalgal abundance within reserves
compared to fished areas lead to higher levels of benthic primary production in reserves
compared to fished areas. This suggests that the implementation of reserves can
fundamentally alter energy partitioning within an ecosystem. Supporting evidence from other
studies is presented and discussed.
5
Murawski, S.A, Brown, R, Lai, H.-L, Rago, P.J. & Hendrickson, L. 2000 Largescale closed areas as a fishery-management tool in temperate marine systems: The
Georges Bank experience. Bulletin of Marine Science 66:775-798
Examines the effects of one of the few large scale MPAs to have been implemented in
temperate waters. The MPAs were considered to have reduced fishing mortality of many
stocks covered by the MPAs, however simultaneous reductions in effort outside the MPAs
confounds interpretation.
6
Pastoors, M.A., Rijnsdorp, A.D. & Van Beek, F.A. 2000 Effects of a partially
closed area in the North Sea (“plaice box”) on stock development of plaice. ICES
Journal of Marine Science 57:1014-1022
The plaice box was established to reduce mortality of undersized plaice (Pleuronectes
platessa) in the North Sea. Since implementation of the plaice box yield and SSB have
decreased. This may be due to other wider changes simultaneously occurring in the North
Sea. The distribution of undersized plaice has also changed since the inception of the plaice
box. This indicates that any benefits from static MPAs may be countered by wider
environmental changes in the ecosystem, and that specific static MPAs by themselves may
only have limited value in hedging against future uncertainty.
On MPAs: Theoretical Studies
7
Pelletier, D. & Mahévas, S. 2005 Spatially explicit fisheries simulation models for
policy evaluation. Fish and Fisheries 6: 307-349
A wide ranging and well structured review of modelling approaches to the evaluation of the
use of MPAs. In addition to population models, the paper examines and discusses ecosystem,
management and exploitation models. Although a wide ranging review, it is not a completely
comprehensive review of all modelling approaches.
8
Guénnette, S. & Pitcher, T.J. 1999 An age-structured model showing the benefits
of marine reserves in controlling overexploitation. Fisheries Research 39:295-303
A classic paper highlighting the essential problem of using MPAs to manage highly mobile
stocks; that reserves need to cover a significant proportion of the total area inhabited by the
stock to provide meaningful protection. The model examines long term yield and biomass
under different conditions. As a very simplified abstraction, based on a cod population, the
model only crudely describes the dynamics of a natural population. However the general
conclusion is considered to be robust.
9
Quinn, J.F., Wing, S.R. & Botsford, L.W. 1993 Harvest refugia in marine
invertebrate fisheries: models and applications to the red sea urchin, Strongylocentrotus
franciscanus. American Zoology 33:537-550
A general model examining the application of MPAs to sessile invertebrates with a common
larval pool, based upon urchins, including fertilisation and post-settlement dispensatory Allee
effects. Finds that highest yield occurs under a no-reserve management scenario, although
under these conditions populations are at risk from complete collapse with a slight increase in
fishing mortality. (Model assumes constant relative fecundity.) Yields are much more stable
with reserves. To ensure wide spread larval settlement the model finds that there should be
multiple reserves with the spacing between reserves less than the larval dispersal distance.
On MPAs: Ecopath Studies
10
Walters, C, Pauly, D. & Christensen, V. 1999 Ecospace: predictions of mesoscale
spatial patterns in trophic relationships of exploited ecosystems, with emphasis on the
impact of marine protected areas. Ecosystems 2:539-554
This paper outlines the overall Ecospace approach and strategy. Discussed are the general
steps in extending a time dynamic Ecopath/Ecosim model into a spatially explicit model for
MPA testing. Some of the strengths and weaknesses of the Ecospace approach to making
Ecopath/Ecosim spatially explicit are discussed. Also describes how Ecospace deals with
fishers’ behaviour and how fishing effort is spatially distributed. An example model based on
the coast of Brunei is presented and some of the biological and trophic conclusions drawn
from the modelling are discussed.
11
Zeller, D. & Reinert, J. 2004 Modelling spatial closures and fishing effort
restrictions in the Faroe Islands marine ecosystem. Ecological Modelling 172:403-420
An example of a study using the Ecopath/Ecosim/Ecospace approach to theoretically examine
different effort and spatial management options for the Faroe Islands fishery.
Ten year model simulations indicate that the present area closures are sufficient for rebuilding
the major continental shelf demersal stocks, and that opening access to the closed areas would
fail to stocks to rebuild. However the model assumes that there would be a 20% increase in
trawl effort associated with opening the closed areas, thus confounding efforts to determine
the benefits of closed areas compared to simple effort limitation. Deep water species
(Greenland halibut and blue whiting) were not aided by the present closure, though that is
because the present closures do not cover their deep water habitat. The predicted decline in
highly mobile whiting biomass was not affected by a 20% closure of deep water areas,
although their decline in biomass was reduced by a 20% reduction in effort. In contrast, for
the less mobile halibut, closure of 20% of deep water habitat would almost stop the decline in
biomass, however a 20% reduction in effort would lead to a slight rebuilding of stock
biomass.
The model does not allow for a detail comparison of the benefits of MPAs over effort
reduction. Furthermore the model does not account for bycatch or gear-benthos interaction,
two areas where MPAs have been predicted, in certain circumstances, to have specific
benefits compare to traditional landing and effort controls.
12
Salomon, A.K. et al 2002 Modeling [sic] the trophic effects of marine protected
area zoning policies: a case study. Aquatic Ecology 36:85-95
Another example study using the Ecopath/Ecosim/Ecospace approach to theoretically
examine different zoning policies of a proposed National Marine Conservation Area off
British Columbia, Canada.
The paper compares ten year simulation runs of the model with a variety of different
management scenarios in operation, these include a core no-take reserve surrounded by a
limited access buffer zone, limited aboriginal harvests allowed within the buffer zone or notake reserve, and several small or one large reserve. It is noted that different components
within the ecosystem show very different qualitative and quantitative responses to
establishment of the MPA, therefore evaluating MPA effectiveness on the basis of one, or a
few indicator species could give very different answers depending on the species selected for
monitoring. Some factors relating to the selection of useful criteria for evaluating reserve
effectiveness are discussed. As noted by Paper 11 (above) spatial heterogeneity in the
biomass distribution of predators and prey due to trophic interactions is generated by the
MPA. These ‘edge effects’ can reduce some of the benefits of the MPA, especially if fishing
intensity is concentrated around the MPA boundaries.
No biomass effects for widely dispersing organisms were predicted by the model, with only
the low dispersing taxa showing a response to the MPA. A scenario was run with widespread
effort reductions outside the MPA in addition to setting up the MPA, in this scenario widely
dispersing organisms as well as low dispersing organisms showed a response to the change in
management. Furthermore in this case the setting up of the MPA had little extra benefit over
and above the widespread effort restrictions.
In the comparison of one large or several small MPAs it was found that one large MPA was
predicted to have the most beneficial effect. This is because one large MPA has a lower
surface area to volume ratio, reducing the ‘edge effects’ and the number of cross boundary
movements.