CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Study Physical education and sport have over the years provided the avenue for the exhibition of talents in various sports and games for students in various senior high schools in Greater Accra Region and Ghana as a whole. Sport is an important part of every society. This is based on the fact that participation in sporting activities brings about a state of physical, emotional, mental, and social well-being. Sociologists have long recognized that sports in the senior high schools are among the most important social activities sponsored by the Ghana Education Service and the school authorities. Being a senior high school athlete bring to a student prestige among peers, formal rewards in the senior high school and recognition from tutors, administrators and the local community. Also, most students participate in sports to have fun, do something they think they are good at, and improve their skills and fitness. Some people belief that ‘’Feminism is about freedom ; the individual and collective liberty to make decisions. Sports have freed women, and continue to free women, from restrictive dress, behaviours laws and customs and from the belief that women cannot or should not achieve or compete or win” like their 1 other male counterparts. While growing up, sports became a big influence in my life. There was not a day that I did not go outside and throw either a ball or play tennis with my peers. In my early years sports to me was going across the street and gathering a group of friends and playing football (soccer), basketball or the game loved all youth’s “ kickball”. Nevertheless, growing older the games have not changed too much, but the level of competition and the ability people played it at. Throughout school I was always involved in sports in an extra-curricular activity outside of school as well as just playing games during break time at recess during school. During the years of 3rd, 4th and 5th grade, the games became even more competitive. Those were dodge ball, ampe and hop-scotch et, cetera. The reason those games were in the curriculum was to involve the class as a whole and to allow the pupils to work together as a team. The physical education teachers learnt courses like aerobics, basketball, volleyball, soccer, tennis and other team and individual sports, as embodied in the curriculum. Over the past twenty years a research has expressed concern over the lack of confidence and qualification of primary schools teachers who teach physical education. Evidently, the influence of personal school physical experiences may play an important role in the development of teachers’ confidence to appropriately teach physical education. Most research that examined the effects of biographical experiences in physical education on teachers’ confidence to teach physical education have focused on specialists rather than nonspecialist physical education teachers. 2 In the primary schools the interesting part in their competition is when it is on section bases. This is the stage where the teachers start picking and identifying the potential sports boys and girls. It continues in the junior high school, where classes are sometimes used in the competition, or students are shared equally across board and given names as houses where competitions are organised for them, in almost all the sporting activities that the physical education master might have introduced to the students. These physical education lessons them gave the play back and the reflection of what the physical education teacher has taught. Unofficial assessment is made at this time though the physical education teachers are not coaches but their contribution at that level is considered seriously. Some heads of institution do not make time for physical education lesson but rely mostly on physical education teacher when it gets to inter schools sports competition. The introduction to these basics is carried on to the higher classes. At the senior high secondary, inter houses competitions are organised by the physical education master with the assistance of some enthusiastic tutors around. In most cases a selection is made for students to represent the school in the inter school competition during the inter house competition. The physical education teacher at this stage performs the functions of a coach and no more a physical education teacher. At senior high school for instance one is seen as a physical education teacher who teaches physical education as a subject but normally engaged in time of need as a coach and not a physical education master. It is at this stage that the physical 3 education master tries to convert his teaching experiences to assemble the potential athletes whom he had ever spotted to make his team. Physical education teachers work to teach young people sports and fitness techniques, using organised activities to develop health, knowledge and habits. They work mostly in private schools, sometimes splitting time between several schools within the same district. Many physical education teachers also coach sports such as basketball, soccer, badminton, volleyball, tennis and others. In the end they land all these factors and experiences to organize physical education lessons other sporting activities at school level and sports festivals. 1.2 Statement of the Problem Greater Accra Senior High Schools have student population of about four thousand, seven hundred and eighty of which about forty-five percent are females. In all these schools physical education is and all students are supposed to seriously partake in physical education lessons since they are examined and accessed in it. Furthermore those interested in the competitive sports are further prepared and trained to take part in intramural and extramural sports competititions. The issue is that schools are zoned and they compete by schools at zonal and super zonal levels after each schools has selected students to represent either through inter houses competition or other means. The final objective is normally to select a regional team to compete for the Greater Accra Region. The sport council also uses these competitive especially the National schools and colleges competitions to select athletes who excel into the various teams. 4 The research work, seeks to find out the role physical education plays in female participation in sports in the Senior High Schools in the Greater Accra Region particularly Labone Senior High. 1.3 Purpose of the Study Labone is basically a science school made up of both male and females. The school also offer other courses like business, arts, home economics and others apart from technical skills. Physical education is also given attention though it is not examinable, with the exception of forms three and four when they were doing four year course, every class take part in physical education lesson. However these two categories of class participate in other social inter house activities. The school has three physical education teachers who teach the forms one to two, the teachings include both practical and theory. They are also blessed with playing grounds in all games with average quantity of equipment. One can find equal participation of females as well as male counterpart. I. The purpose of the study is to really find out how female sports are organised in Labone SHS. II. To establish female (girls) attitudes to participation in sport III. How females are selected into the various teams. 1.4 Significance of the Study Sports is basically meant for both males and females but it has clearly shifted and become more or less a gendered activity that welcomes more boys than girls in the 5 quest for the celebrating of skills particularly in Greater Accra senior high schools. It is hope that the findings of this study will be significant in the areas; 1. It will improve the teaching of physical education in the Greater Accra senior high schools, including tutors and administrators to identify the needs and sentiments for females’ participation with regards to sports and athletics. 2. It will help to broaden the knowledge base of the students particularly women about the benefits of participating in sports. 3. It will help the Greater Accra school authorities to provide appropriate and convenient facilities to enhance female students participation in sports and athletics. 4. It will help the curriculum planners in structuring the programme from the level which will in turn yield and produce better and useful sports women in future. 5. For other researchers who would want to research in this area. It will provide the basis for their research work. 1.5 Research Questions 1. To what extent does female students’ participation in physical education lessons influence their participation in sports? 2. To what extent do females (girls) participate in sports? 3. How are females (girls) selected for sports competitions? 6 1.6 Limitation of the Study The study may be limited to the following; a) Since all female students from Greater Accra senior high cannot be used for the research work, random sampling technique will be used to select the population of 120 respondents from all the twelve classes Labone Senior High School. b) Due to financial constraints only 120 questionnaires will be administered to female students from these selected classes. 1.7 Delimitation of the Study This study is delimited to students of Labone Senior High School. It is again delimited to female students of the school and past female sports performers of the schools. 7 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Introduction This chapter deals with the review of the literature to the study. Female participation in the physical education programme has been of a great concern worldwide .Charles Bucher (1972) the renowned physical educationist pointed out that physical education as an integral part of the total education process is a field of endeavour which has its aim towards the improvement of human performance through the medium of selected physical activities with the aim of achieving their outcomes. The philosophy of education is based on the premise that education is designed to help man achieve excellence and that physical education as a part of general education plays a vital role in this area. Times have changed and continue to change very fast. No one can look at the world today with its rush, tension, competitive living and physical demand and say that physical education must be the sole business of men, thus pushing women to the background. 8 In America the press devote much space to the American women. Best selling magazines, television talk shows and lecturers from coast to coast stress the new female freedom and power(Engels Fredrick 1988). Harris Wilson (1989) wrote that research in 1989 shows a remarkably growing influence of women. Women have been found to be a potent force. That women are playing a more prominent role in the American life not only in politics, business, and government but also in the field of sports. The research on P.E. the road to female participation in sports will look at this critical issue under the following headings: 2.1 History of female participation in physical education Perception of female participation in physical education History of female participation in physical education The beliefs and experiences of physical education today rest on the history of this field of endeavour. It is the source of physical education’s identify. Primitive society did not think of physical education as people do today. There was no organised physical education programme in primitive society or in the cultures of the ancient oriental nations. From the physical point of view, the primitive people did not need to set aside a period during the day when they could participate in various forms of physical activities. The Greece, is believed were the first to engage in physical education. As 2, 500 B.C. Bucher (1984) there were evidences of physical education activities 9 being popular in certain culture. Archaeological investigations at Mycenae and other centre 0f Aegean civilisation have unearthed buildings, pottery and materials that point to the important place of physical education in this ancient culture. Literature such as Homer’s Lliard and Odyssey is also a source of this information. Physical education was a vital part of the education of the Greek boy. ‘exercise for the body and music for the soul’. Individuals ran, wrestled, jumped danced or threw the javelin not for reward but for what would do for their bodies. According to Bucher and Reade (1988), in Sparta, a city state in the Peloponnesus district of Greece, women as well as men were required to be in good physical conditions. It was believed that healthy mothers would bear healthy and strong sons. Spartan women may have begun their physical conditions as early as 7years of age and continued gymnastics in public until they were married. In 776 B. C. when the 1st Olympic games were held in ancient Greece women were not permitted to take part nor even allowed to be spectators. The renaissance period Bucher (1984) helped to interpret the worth of physical education to the public in general. It demonstrated how a society that promotes the dignity and freedom of its citizens both men and women and recognizes the value of the human body. The belief became a preparation that physical 10 education is necessary for both males and females are a preparation for warfare and as a means of developing the body. In 1852 Catherine Beecher founded the American women’s association education and (Bucher 1979). She was not concerned with building muscle and strength. She was more interested in the weak and feeble persons society. Instead of large muscles she aimed at agility, grace of movement and flexibility and improving one’s general health and posture. The first young women’s Christian Association was founded in Boston in 1866 by Mrs, Henry Dwant. This organization is similar to the young men’s Christian association and has a broad physical educational programme for its members. World war 1 started in 1914 and the United States entry in 1918 had internal impact on the nation’s education and physical education in general. The selective service Act of 1917 called to service all men between the ages of 18 and 25 years. There was the emancipation of women law and women began to show interest in sports and physical education as well as other fields formerly considered to be ‘off limit’. The few women physical educators at the time were active in conditioning programmes in communities and in industry at home (Greta & Cohen 1993). 11 In spite of the significant roles women play in the field of physical education, Haragan (1977) wrote that females are limited in the number of social outcomes they can possibly derive from their game playing and they are not adequately prepare for a variety of adult social, political or economic roles. Females are not adequately prepared for leadership or managerial positions because of the games they are forced to play when they were children. 2.2 Participation of Women in Sports Women’s participation in sport has a long history. It is a history marked by division and discrimination but also one filled with major accomplishments by female athletes and important advances for gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls. Among the many remarkable achievements are those of Helene Madison of the United State of America, the first women to swim the 100 yards freestyle in one minute at the 1984 Olympics: Maria-Teresa de Filippis of Italy, the first woman to compete in an European Grand Prix auto race in 1958: Nawal El Moutatawakel of Morocco, the first woman from an Islamic nation to win an Olympic medal for the 400 metre hurdles at the 1984 Olympics: and Tegla Loroupe of Kenya, who in 1994 became the first African woman to win a major marathon. Women have taken up top leadership positions in sport, such as Presidents and Secretaries-General of National Olympic Committees. More and more women have also taken up employment opportunities in all areas of sports, including as coaches, managers, official and sport journalists. 12 These achievements were made in the face of numerous barriers based on gender discrimination. Women were often perceived as being too weak for sports, particularly endurance sports, such as marathons, weight lifting and cycling and it was often argued in the past that sport was harmful to women’s health, particularly their reproductive health. In 1896, Boron Pierre de Coubertin, founder of modern Olympics, stated: “No matter how toughened a sportswoman may be, her organism is not cut out to sustain shocks.” Such stereotype fuelled discrimination in physical education and in recreational and competitive sport, sporting organizations and sport media. 2.3 Benefits of Sports and Physical Activities Physical Health The physical health benefits of regular physical activity are well-established. Regular participation in such activities is associated with a longer and better quality of life, reduced risks of a variety of diseases and many psychological and emotional benefits. There is also a large body of literature showing that inactivity is one of the most significant causes of death, disability and reduced quality of life in the developed world (Sallis, & Owen, 1999). Physical activity may influence the physical health of girls in two ways. First, it can affect the causes of disease during childhood and youth. Evidence suggests a positive relationship between physical activity and a host of factors affecting girls’ physical health, including diabetes, blood pressure and the ability to use fat for energy. Secondly, physical activity could reduce the risk of chronic diseases in later life. A 13 number of ‘adult’ conditions, such as cancer, diabetes and coronary heart disease, have their origins in childhood, and can be aided, in part, by regular physical activity in the early years. Also, regular activity beginning in childhood helps to improve bone health, thus preventing osteoporosis, which predominantly affects females (US Department of Health and Human Services, 1996). Obesity deserves special mention. There seems to be a general trend towards increased childhood obesity in a large number of countries, and this increase seems to be particularly prevalent in girls from highly urbanised areas, some ethnic minorities and the disabled. Obesity in childhood is known to have significant impact on both physical and mental health, including hyperlipidemia, hypertension and abnormal glucose tolerance. Physical activity can be an important feature of a weight control programme for girls, increasing calorific expenditure and promoting fat reduction. Indeed, recent systematic reviews on both the prevention and treatment of childhood obesity recommend strategies for increasing physical activity. Mental Health In recent years, there has been evidence of disturbingly high rates of mental ill-health among adolescents and even younger children, ranging from low-self-esteem, anxiety and depression to eating disorders, substance abuse and suicide. Adolescent girls are particularly vulnerable to anxiety and depressive disorders: by 15 years, girls are twice as likely as boys to have experienced a major depressive episode; girls are also 14 significantly more likely than boys to have seriously considered suicide (Sallis, & Owen, 1999). Research suggests two ways in which physical activities can contribute to mental health in girls. Firstly, there is fairly consistent evidence that regular activity can have a positive effect upon girls’ psychological well-being; indeed, some studies indicate that girls may respond more strongly than boys in terms of short-term benefits. Secondly, research has indicated that physical activity can contribute to the reduction of problematic levels of anxiety and depression. Evidence is beginning to be gathered for exercise as a treatment for clinical depression, with studies finding that physical activity is as effective a treatment as anti-depressants, and psychotherapy. Similarly, a variety of non-clinical studies have found that higher levels of activity were related to lower rates of depression. A position statement of the International Society of Sport Psychology drew out numerous mental health benefits of physical activity from the research literature, including reduced state anxiety, neuroticism and anxiety, mild to moderate depression, and various kinds of stress (Friedman, & Berger, 1991). Educational and Intellectual Development A range of evidence suggests that for many girls, sports and physical activities are positive features of their academic aspirations and achievement. The classic study of the relationship between physical activity and school performance was carried out in France in the early 1950s, in Vanves. Researchers reduced ‘academic’ curriculum time by 26%, replacing it with physical activities, yet academic results did not 15 worsen, there were fewer discipline problems, greater attentiveness and less absenteeism. More recent studies have found improvements for many children in academic performance when time for physical activity is increased in their school day. A report of three longitudinal studies emphasises that ‘academic performance is maintained or even enhanced by an increase in a student’s level of habitual physical activity, despite a reduction in curriculum or free time for the study of academic material’. There is considerable evidence of a positive relationship between girls’ participation in sports and pro-educational values, although, at present, it is difficult to distinguish between correlation and causation. Studies from the United States report a host of encouraging findings including: girls who participate in sports are more likely to achieve academic success than those who do not play sports; female high school athletes expressed a greater interest in graduating from both high school and college; female athletes from ethnic minority groups reported better school grades and greater involvement in extra-curricular activities than non-athletes, and in some cases are considerably less likely to drop-out from school. Other studies have suggested that sports participation can help undermine traditional gender stereotyping in terms of academic aptitude, by demonstrating an association between girls’ engagement in sports and improved performance in science and mathematics (Shephard, 1997). 16 Reproductive Health Adolescent pregnancy and sexual ill-health are major social problems across the globe. Although there is a shortage of research in this area, early studies conducted in the US have found that adolescent girls who participate in sports tend to become sexually active later in life, have fewer partners, and, when sexually active, make greater use of contraception than non-sporting girls. Projects are currently underway in the developing world that use sports participation as a strategy for empowering girls to avoid high risk sexual behaviour (Brady, 1998). Social Inclusion Combating social exclusion, or ‘the multiple and changing factors resulting in people being excluded from the normal exchanges, practices and rights of modern society’, has become a focus of attention for governments and non-governmental organisations in recent years. Some writers have argued that sports not only reflect but can also contribute to girls’ social exclusion in sports and wider society. Certainly, the dominance of sports as culturally valued physical activities, and the close identification of sports with masculinity, means that other, non-masculine groups can become pushed to the margins. However, positive sports experiences do seem to have the potential to, at least, contribute to the process of inclusion by: bringing individuals from a variety of social and economic background together in a shared interest in activities that are inherently valuable; offering a sense of belonging, to a team, a club or a programme; providing opportunities for the development of valued capabilities and competencies; and increasing ‘community capital’, by developing social networks, community cohesion and civic pride. 17 Studies of women’s experiences of sports participation have suggested that they can contribute to a more generalised feeling of empowerment. In many settings, adolescents may be encouraged to view their bodies as sexual and reproductive resources for men, rather than sources of strength for themselves. Physical activities may help them develop a sense of ownership of their bodies and access the types of activity experiences traditionally enjoyed by boys. This may be because participation augments girls’ self-esteem, or because being an athlete carries with it a strong public identity. Some female athletes report having a stronger sense of identity and selfdirection; what Talbot calls ‘being herself through sport’. Whatever the reasons, increasing the numbers of girls’ participating in sports and physical activities does seem to open up routes through which they can acquire new community affiliations and begin to operate more openly and equally in community life. In doing so, girls’ participation can challenge and change social norms about their roles and capabilities (Baranowski, et al, 1993). 2.4 Early experiences of physical activity It is important to recognise the significance of girls’ early experiences of physical activity and it is often within the context of school physical education lessons where understanding of individual sporting identity is developed. It is interesting to note that what were initially regarded as lesser concerns for school governing bodies, such as specific uniforms for physical education lessons and the standards of showering facilities, were found to be significant aspects in girls’ actual enjoyment of school sports. Recognition of individual experience of the body has often been overlooked in favour of broader policy driven issues relating to health and educational provision. 18 Particularly in sports, there are many occasions where the body is literally displayed and this has the potential for the individual to be exposed to negative emotional experiences of shame and bodily embarrassment. In consequence, sport has the potential to be a source of embarrassment by way of being an activity where the body is fore-grounded. Uniforms can often be revealing and communal showers can be the source of unwanted displays of the naked body, particularly at a time when girls are becoming more acutely aware of the social female body. The recognition of the body as a contributory factor in shame is equally significant for boys and highlights the importance of incorporating this aspect within any study of youth sports (Deem, 1986). Studies have also highlighted a greater emphasis upon discipline in physical education compared to other aspects of the curriculum. For instance, Scraton incorporates sociological explanations, which describe the influence of everyday knowledge and language in the regulation of bodies, and demonstrates how they can be applied to particular practices found in physical education. Additional emphasis on discipline in the context of physical education lessons suggests that distinctions are being made between cerebral pursuits of academic study and corporeal activities and that differing forms of regulation are required. By the time students enter secondary school, they have developed clear activity preferences. For instance, dance and gymnastics is shown to be either loved or hated by students by the time they reach secondary school. In gymnastics, it was found that enjoyment was closely related to personal ability whereas those who disliked it found 19 the experience humiliating. Similarly, in dance there were opportunities for creativity and expression which were seen as positive. However, the teaching approaches and presence of boys were cited as reasons for not liking it. What becomes apparent is that bodily performances play an important role in the experience of physical education, not only in terms of bio-mechanical dexterity but more in the way that social bodily performances become central to whether a sport is enjoyed or not. Lack of ability is a contributory factor, but there are many other social situations which emerge which have the potential to cause humiliation. Elements considered essential to the performance of a sport, such as competition, bodily performances, display of ability, winning or losing are often overlooked in terms of how these impact upon individual self-esteem (Sabo, et al, 2004). Geographical and physical aspects can contribute to the positive or negative experience of school sports on the individual body. Some ways to combat the negative experience of sport which many school children face include the provision of a broader curriculum, more practical applications of uniform policy and teaching strategies which enhance rather than diminish self-esteem. However, one of the solutions offered is to focus upon ways in which girls can have access to the same range of activities as boys. This is problematic, as it does not take into consideration one of the main areas causing negative experience, chiefly, the elements within the practices involved in school sports which contribute to the experience of them in terms of shame and humiliation. These are not areas which are the sole reserve of girls, but are equally experienced by boys who do not conform to those same expectations which restrict the girls. Thus, work which incorporates the 20 acknowledgement of a range of subordinated masculinities within the context of sport needs to be applied (Kirk, et al, 2000). 2.5 Empowering Women and Girls Through Sport Sport can be an important tool for social empowerment through the skills and values learned, such as teamwork, negotiation, leadership, communication and respect for others. The social benefits of participation in sport are thought to be especially important for girls, given that many girls, particularly in adolescence, have fewer opportunities than boys for social interaction outside the home and beyond family structures.41 Women and girls acquire new interpersonal networks, develop a sense of identity and access new opportunities, allowing them to become more engaged in school and community life. Participation in sport also enables women and girls to enjoy freedom of expression and movement and increase their self-esteem and selfconfidence. It has also been argued that sport and physical education can serve as the basis for a sense of “positive embodiment”. This concept goes beyond the idea of physical fitness and incorporates psychological benefits and the pursuit of active spiritual practices. The psychological benefits of physical activity, essential for a sense of positive embodiment, can be acquired through the enjoyment of the physical activity, self-chosen levels of competition, and the provision of social support from the family and the community. 21 The concept of positive embodiment implies that women and girls have the right and responsibility to create active, healthy lifestyles to sustain vitality in their lives. There are psychological, emotional and medical benefits to doing so, as well as significant broader economic and social gains. The concept starts with traditional fitness and adds psychosocial wellness strategies and the pursuit of active self-care for body, mind and spirit. Positive embodiment requires a lifestyle incorporating self-assertion and self-care which is the basis of a vigorous and satisfying sense of one’s own body. Positive embodiment can be seen as a model of self-care that allows women to achieve a balance between caring for themselves and caring for others. Most women prioritize the needs of others before their own needs, a pattern that often leads to neglect of themselves. As a result, women deplete their resources of time and energy in the care of others. Self-care involves the creation of personal time and space for women and opportunities for positive interaction of the mind, body and spirit. Adoption of the physical embodiment approach, with its critical concept of active self-care, would require complex changes in lifestyle for many women. Sport can serve as a vehicle to improve women’s and girls’ leadership roles and participation in decision-making. The acquisition of valuable skills in management, negotiation and decision-making empowers women and girls to become leaders in all areas of community life, as well as in the household. As more and more women and girls serve in leadership and decision-making positions, their influence as role models and mentors encourages more women and 22 girls to participate at all levels of sport. Promoting and documenting the successes of women and girl leaders in the world of sport is an important step in raising awareness and providing encouragement and support to other aspiring leaders. Sporting activities can be an important forum for providing information to women and girls on sexuality and health, including reproductive health. Girls’ participation in sport can generate a greater awareness and understanding of their bodies and its functions, as well as a greater sense of self-ownership and respect. A study by the Women’s Sports Foundation on sport and teen pregnancy in the United States found that the sense of ownership and respect for their bodies developed by adolescent girls who participate in sport encourages them to delay sexual activity, thereby reducing the levels of teen pregnancy. Research on links between sport and girls’ sexual behaviour has also been conducted by the Wellesley Centers for Women. The study showed that the decrease in risky sexual behaviour among girls who participate in sport is partly due to a delay in sexual initiation and partly due to social-psychological dynamics, such as enhanced self-confidence, a less stereotypical gender identity and/or a stronger desire to avoid teenage pregnancy. 2.6 Physical Education in Schools For all girls and young women, access to physical education in schools can play an important role in promoting their participation in sport. During the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s, physical education in schools worldwide was subject to decreasing curricula time, reduced financial, physical and human resources, and a low subject status. Since the Berlin Physical Education World Summit in November 1999, there have been 23 significant improvements in school-based physical education in developed countries, but unfortunately little change in developing countries (Hardman, 2004). The inclusion of physical education in official curricula does not necessarily promote physical activity among girls, as the physical education provided may be heavily biased towards boys in terms of types of activity, teaching styles and accessible resources. For example, physical education in some countries is optional for girls and many choose not to take part, a situation exacerbated by a lack of facilities, such as changing rooms for girls. In addition to policies that support the right to physical education, there is a need to ensure that policies and programmes on school-based physical education fully incorporate gender perspectives. For example, in addition to promoting an increase in participation by girls and young women, traditional stereotypes and gender-based segregation in sport and physical education should be discouraged. Both boys and girls need to be encouraged to move beyond the traditional classification of different types of sports as male (such as rugby) or female (such as netball), and to pursue a diverse range of physical activity. To achieve this, policies and programmes should be established to raise awareness among students, parents and staff; the number of women physical education teachers should be increased; gender-sensitive training should be provided for all teachers; and adequate resources allocated (Hardman, 2004). 24 CHAPTER THREE METHODS AND PROCEDURES 3.0 Introduction The purpose of this research is to find out how P.E. leads to female participation in sports in Greater Accra schools and colleges particularly Labone Senior High School This chapter deals basically with the methodology of the research. It is made up of the following sub-headings; 3.1 1. Research Design 2. Population 3. Sample and Sampling Technique 4. Instrument/Instrumentation 5. Data Collection Procedure 6. Data Analysis Procedure Research Design A descriptive survey was used as the design for the study, so that inferences could be made about characteristics with respect to the sample size. Delen (1979) notes that descriptive surveys are versatile and practical, especially to the researcher in that they 25 identify present needs. He further notes that descriptive research is basic for all types of research in assessing the situation as a pre-requisite for conclusions and generalizations. In supporting this view, Fraenkel and Wallen (2003) observed that the purpose of descriptive research is to observe, describe and document aspects of a phenomenon as it naturally occurs. They further contend that in descriptive research, the events or conditions either already exist or have occurred and the researcher merely selects the relevant variables for analysis of their relationship. According to Best and Kahn (1993), descriptive survey is concerned with the conditions or relationships that exist, such as determining the nature of prevailing conditions, practices and attitudes, opinions that are held, processes that are going on or trends that are developed. Fraenkel and Wallen (2003) also maintain that in descriptive research, accurate description of activities, objects, processes and persons is the objective. It was therefore, expedient to use the descriptive survey to find out the correlation between P.E. and sports to women at the various levels. The researcher adopts a qualitative approach which gives the researcher the opportunity to collect and analyze numerical information statistically. 3.2 Population The target population for the study is made up of 125 female students from the Labone Senior High School (SHS). But the accessible population was made up of 100 female student who are still at school and 25 past students from the Labone SHS. 26 3.3 Sample and Sampling Technique The probability sampling method was adopted by the researcher. According to Alhassan, (2006, P.50) in “Probability sampling, randomness is essential and it is a key element in the process”. This sampling method was meant to give all the subjects in the population equal chance to be selected and included in the sample unit. The simple random method was adopted by the researcher. “This process of sampling gives every member in the population the probability of being selected to represent the population” (Alhassan 2006 P. 51). Therefore, the method ensures that every individual in the population has equal chance to be included in the sample unit (Kwabia, 2006). This method was suitable for the study because the population was relatively homogenous. That is, the population was made up of only female students. The lottery technique was adopted for the sampling. With this technique, a list of all female students was obtained at the Headteachers office. The list was arranged and numbers were attached to all the names of the female students. Numbers equivalent to the number of all the personnel were written on pieces of papers. These pieces of papers containing the numbers were folded and put into a hat. They were shuffled thoroughly before drawing. There was reshuffling after each draw. This process was rigidly followed until the required number was obtained. Names of female students that corresponded to the numbers selected were included in the sampling unit. The same was repeated for the female past students. This method helped to obtain a sample unit that represented the entire population. 27 3.4 Instrumentation The research instrument is two sections. Section A is about demographic details of the respondents and section B is the five point likert scale format questionnaire. The questionnaire was the main instrument used for collecting data. This is made up of both close and open ended questions. The questionnaire, according to Alhassan (2006), is a systematically prepared document which contains questions to elicit responses from respondents or research informants for the purpose of collecting data. Apart from its suitability for wider coverage, the questionnaire produced reliable information, helped to be interviewed more respondents and reduce bias and influence of the researcher. These help to produce the desire result as directed by the objective of the study. Both close ended and open ended questions were used/this was meant to obtain comparable responses and to avoid uncoordinated ideas which could make analyses difficult. 3.5 Data Collection The questionnaires were personally administered to the 125 participants selected for the study. The researcher contacted the head of the schools and arranged with him for the appropriate date to administer the questionnaire. The consent of the respondents was sought and educated on the rationale of the study. The need for honesty was also 28 emphasized. Adequate explanation as to how to answer the questionnaire was also given. Respondents were given ample time to complete the questionnaire at their own pace. The questionnaire administration lasted for fifteen working days. The direct involvement of the researcher in all data collection situations ensured hundred percent recovery of the questionnaire. 3.6 Data Analysis As the data were collected through questionnaires, it was expedient to say how such data were analysed. Khan (1990) defines data analysis as studying an organised material in order to discover inherent facts. The total size of the sample was reported along with the overall percentage of the returns. The percentage of total sample responding to each item was also reported. The percentage of respondents who chose each alternative for each question was also stated. Furthermore, all appropriate descriptive statistics were used to describe the data. The result of each question was tabulated and a final percentage was reported using tables to further describe the results. 29 CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND FINDINGS 4.0 Introduction This chapter focuses on presentation and analysis of data collected from the field. The analysis was based on the objectives of the study and also based on responses from the respondents sampled for the study. The study used a purely descriptive means of analysis and utilised descriptive statistics such as tables and pie charts. Figure 1: Form of Respondents Form of Students Key 30 Data in Figure 1 indicated that 36 (36%) of the students sampled for he study were in SHS 1, 39 (39%), in SHS 2, while 25 (25%) were in SHS 3. This means that, there more SHS 2 students in the study. Table 1: Academic Programme of Respondents Programme Frequency Percentage Science 20 20 Art 58 58 Business 22 22 Total 100 100 Data in Table 1 showed that, 20% of the students were pursuing Science, 58% were pursuing General Arts, while 22% pursued Business. The data indicated that there are more students (58%) studying General Arts than others in the programmes. Series of statements was used to find out factors that account for truancy and absenteeism. These statements were answered using items 1 – 13 on the questionnaire for female students. Each of these items was coded as Strongly Disagree = 1, Disagree = 2, Undecided = 3, Agree = 4, and Strongly Agree = 5. All the forty parents responded to all the items. Their responses are indicated in Table 4.7. 31 Table 2: QUESTIONAIRE 1. SA Frq % The School time table includes P. E. 73 73 Lessons. A U D SD % - Frq 27 % 27 Frq - % - Frq - % - Frq 2. The P. E Teachers teach P. E. Lesson 49 allocated to them on the time table 49 41 41 3 3 4 4 3 3 3. Female students in Labone SHS participate 14 in sports and athletics during their leisure time. 14 23 23 3 3 37 37 23 23 4. Admission of female students into the SHS 1 emphasizes sports more than academic talents. 1 5 5 14 14 25 25 55 55 5. Social support to female students 16 influences their participation in sports activities. 16 38 38 11 11 19 19 16 16 6. Labone SHS sports section has instituted 7 an academic support programme for female students who are athletes. 7 18 18 20 20 29 29 26 26 7. The school team is made up of only those 14 who take part in the inter house competition. 14 15 15 10 10 30 30 31 31 8. Female students in Labone participate in 5 sports and athletics during their leisure time. 5 15 15 19 19 27 27 34 34 9. My school organizes sports competition every academic year 60 60 27 27 - - 9 9 4 4 Female students are given equal 60 opportunity to take part in all sporting activities. 60 19 19 - - 11 11 10 10 11. You only join the school team when you 6 participate in P.E. classes 6 5 5 9 9 34 34 46 46 12. Female students join the school team when 21 they do well during the inter house competitions. 21 34 34 5 5 15 15 25 25 13. Female students who are found in the 15 school team are people who actively take part in P.E. lesson. 15 14 14 10 10 25 25 36 36 10. Key: F= Frequency, SA = Strongly Agree, A = Agree, U= Undecided, D= Disagree, SD = Strongly Disagree 32 Data in Table 2 indicated that all (100%) the female students agreed that the school time table include physical education (P.E.) lessons, 90% agreed that P.E teachers teach the lesson allocated them on the time table, 7% disagreed, while 3% of the female students were undecided. This affirms Bucher’s (1972) assertion that physical education as an integral part of the total education process is a field of endeavour which has its aim towards the improvement of human performance through the medium of selected physical activities with the aim of achieving their outcomes. The data in Table 2 also indicated that 60% of the female students in Labone SHS disagreed that they participate in sports during their leisure time, 37% agreed, while 3% were undecided. Also, 80% of the female students disagreed that admission of female students into the SHS emphasizes sports more than academic talents, 6% disagreed, while 14% were undecided. On social support to female students influences their participation in sports activities, 54% of the female students agreed to the statement, 11% were undecided, while 35% disagreed to the statement. Twenty five percent of the female students agreed that Labone SHS sports section has instituted an academic support programme for female students who are athletes, 20% were undecided, while 55% of the students disagreed. In another development, 29% of the female students disagreed that the school team is made up of only those who take part in the inter house competition, 10% were undecided, while 61% of the female students disagreed to the statement. Still in Table 33 2, 20% of the female students disagreed that female students in Labone SHS participate in sports and athletics during their leisure time, 19% were undecided, while 61% disagreed that female student in Labone SHS participate in sports and athletics during their leisure time. Furthermore in Table 2, 87% of the female students disagreed that their school organizes sports competition every academic year, while 13% disagreed to the statement. Also, 79% of the students agreed that female students are given equal opportunity to take part in all sporting activities, while 21% disagreed to the statement. It was also revealed from Table 2 that 11% of the students disagreed that you can only join the school team when you participate in P.E. lessons, 9% were undecided, while 80% disagreed to the statement. Finally, the data in Table 2 showed that 55% of the students agreed that female students join the school team when they do well during the inter house competitions, 5% were undecided, while 40% of the students disagreed to the statement. Twenty nine percent of the students agreed that female students who are found in the school team are people who actively take part in P.E. lessons, 10% were undecided, while 61% of the students disagreed to the statement. 34 Analysis from female (past students) performers Figure 2: Level/Stage Students entered into Sports S Results in Figure 2 showed that, 16% of the students indicated that they got into sports at the JHS level, 40% indicated SHS, 16% said tertiary, while 28% indicated professional level. This means that most of the female past students sampled for the study got into active sports at the Senior High School (SHS) level. 35 Table 3: How Students got into Sports Responses Frequency Percentage P. E. Lesson 16 64 Friends 7 28 Parents 2 8 Total 25 100 Table 3 indicated how female past students got into sports. The results in the table showed that 64% of the past students indicated they got into sports through physical education (PE) lessons, 28% indicated friends, while 8% said their parents encouraged and assisted them. When respondents were asked as to whether they have competed for their school (not in table), they all (100%) responded in the positive (Yes). Table 4: Responses as to Whether Respondents have Competed for their Nation Responses Frequency Percentage Yes 18 72 No 7 28 Total 25 100 36 The data in Table 4 showed that 72% of the past students indicated that they have competed for their nation, while 28% said that they have never competed for their nation. This means that majority of the respondents have competed for their nation. Table 5: Mode of Selection into the School Team Mode of Selection Frequency Percentage Inter houses 15 60 Inter sections 6 24 Inter classes 1 4 Trials 3 12 Total 25 100 Table 5 showed that 60% of the past students said that they were selected into their school team through inter houses, 24% said through inter sections, 12% said through trials; while 4% said they were selected through inter classes. This means that majority (60%) of the past students were selected into the school team through inter house competition. 37 Table 6: Mode of Selection into the National Team Mode of Selection Frequency Percentage Inter zonal 7 28 Inter schools 4 16 Inter districts - - Inter regional 10 40 Club competition 2 8 Not applicable 2 8 Total 25 100 Data in Table 6 revealed that 40% of the past students indicated that they were selected into the national team through inter regional competitions, 28% said they were selected through inter zonal competitions, 16% said they were selected through inter schools competitions, while 8% of the past students said they were selected through club competition, and 8% also said not applicable, meaning their selection was neither of the options provided. 38 Table 7: Responses as to Whether being in the School Team Contributed to the joining of the National Team Responses Frequency Percentage (%) Yes 22 88 No 3 12 Total 25 100 Responses in Table 7 showed that 88% of the past students said that being in the school team made it possible to join the national team, while 12% responded in the negative. This means that majority of the past students joined the national team after being in the school team. 39 CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Introduction This chapter presents the summary of the findings of the study, conclusion and recommendations. The study was undertaken to investigate female students’ participation in Physical Education with particular reference to Labone SHS. Some of the findings derived from the data formed the basis for recommendation for ensuring female students participation in Physical Education. Summary of Findings Female students from Labone SHS were randomly selected to participate in the study. One hundred (100) female students who were still at school and fifty (50) past female students formed the sampled population for the study. The data obtained were presented and analyzed by means of frequency distribution table and simple percentages. A number of findings emerged from the studies which are summarized below; i. The school time table at Labone Senior High include physical education lessons. This means that students at Labone SHS have equal chance to participate in physical education lessons. Also, physical education teachers at Labone SHS teach P.E. lessons allocated to them on the time table. ii. Majority of the female students at Labone SHS do not participate in sports and athletics during their leisure time. This could be due to the fact that their 40 admission into the school was not base on sports but rather their academic talents. iii. The study revealed that social support to female students influences their participation in sporting activities. In this regard, the sports section of Labone SHS has no academic support programme for female students who are athletes. iv. The Labone SHS team is not made up of only those who participate in the inter house competition. Also, ones qualification into the school team is not based on his or her participation in P.E. classes. v. Sports competitions are organized every academic year in which female students are given equal opportunity to participate. vi. It was also revealed from the past female students that they actively enter into sports at the SHS level through P.E. lessons. vii. Also, all the female past students sampled for the study have competed for their school, while 72% have competed for the nation. viii. Majority were selected into the school team is through inter houses competitions. Selection into the national team was through into Districts and Zonal competitions. ix. Majority of the past female students indicated that their inclusion into the school as well as the national team has really helped them. Conclusion The benefits of participation in physical activities are great, and the potential costs of inactivity can be severe. Many girls around the world are not currently able to take advantage of the benefits of regular sports and physical activities due to inequitable 41 access and opportunities. Therefore, a central challenge facing governments, schools, sports groups and communities is to develop forms of physical activity that are sensitive to girls’ needs and interests. But rather than focusing on ‘girl-friendly’ sports, we should be looking for ways to make sports and other physical activities more ‘child-friendly’ and ‘youth-friendly’. Recommendations Based on the outcome of the study, the following recommendations have been made: 1. Girls do enjoy engaging in physical activities. Strategies should be implemented which will help girls build upon this enjoyment, and allow them to participate as fully as possible, in forms that offer them satisfaction and opportunities for achievement. 2. School physical education is a foundation of life-long physical activity. Fundamental movement skills need to be developed from an early age, for all children, with the emphasis on the individual body, rather than sporting outcomes. 3. Some girls regularly engage in sports and physical activities, as an integral part of their lifestyle. Any strategies concerned with raising participation among young people need to remember that neither girls nor boys are ‘the problem’; rather, the difficulty lies with the ways in which physical activities are constructed and presented. 4. It is important to examine and highlight the practices inherent within sports which might deter children from participating. Sports provision may need to be adapted to encourage and accommodate all young people. 42 5. The organisation of sports groups and programmes should include women in key roles, such as coaching and mentors, and role models drawn from within local communities and schools. 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