Do WWW-based Presentations Support Better (Constructivistic) Learning in the
Basics of Informatics?
Pekka Makkonen
University of Jyväskylä
Department of Computer Science and Information Systems
P.O. Box 35, Fin-40350 Jyväskylä, Finland
E-mail pmakkone@jyu.fi
Abstract
Hypertext and the WWW appear to have a positive effect
on learning. Both techniques permit a constructivist
learning environment to support the student's knowledge
construction and permit a more active student role.
However, the problems
associated with the
aforementioned may endanger the benefit to learning.
Thus, the role and the forms of hypertext and the WWW
must be discussed.
Due to the common problems of "information overload"
and being "lost-in hyperspace" we suggest guided tours
in the form of a slideshow presentation as a solution to
organizing a hypermedia presentation on the WWW for
learning the basics of informatics. These slides include
links to the appropriate supporting web sites. In addition
to the idea of a guided tour, based on the cognitive
flexibility theory, we also suggest that the use of search
engines and directories must be promoted.
This paper describes the use of guided tours as a
complementary addition to conventional lectures in the
learning of the basics of informatics. We claim that
learning can be promoted in the spirit of constructivism,
situated action and cognitive flexibility when organizing
coursework based on guided tours as well as search
engines and directories. We analyze the benefit of
optional coursework including the use of guided tours
and in addition the use of search engines and directories
on the WWW. At the beginning and end of the course we
analyzed how useful and interesting the students regarded
six themes of the course. In addition, the students were
expected to analyze their own development of computer
use skills, Internet use skills, and their knowledge of
basic concepts in informatics. The study found that
WWW-based coursework affects both external and
internal motivation equally in most cases. The effect on
Internet skills and especially on the knowledge of basic
concepts in informatics was beneficial.
1. Introduction
During the 90s the reform of teaching has also reached
the universities. For example, Isaacs [11] and Rosenthal
[25] have reported various problems in regard to
traditional lecture-based teaching. These problems include
ineffectiveness, an increase in passivity, and isolation in
students. Especially in the context of technology and
related sciences, some revisions have been suggested to
improve lecturing as a teaching method by activating
students using, for example, co-operative learning in small
groups and essay-writing assignments about technical
topics [11]. From this perspective lecturing is not without
potential if the previously mentioned problems can be
corrected, but other learning methods must also be
considered. For example, in informatics coursework
utilizing information technology and its new possibilities
may be a good and natural alternative to conventional
lectures.
Hypertext reflects a human's way of thinking and
provides an opportunity to process information and the
interrelatedness between information cues [14]. To learn
meaningfully, individuals must choose to relate new
knowledge to relevant concepts and propositions with
which they are already familiar [22]. Hypertext enables
learning as a knowledge construction process, because it
allows information and concepts to be represented as a
user or a learner has adopted them. This helps meaningful
learning and may improve the motivation for learning.
Thus, it is important that we comprehend hypertext as a
cognitive tool, in other words, as a tool for knowledge
construction.
Hypertext and hypermedia permit an alternative view
of learning by supporting knowledge construction and
individual learning. Thus, they may be alternatives to
conventional lectures or textbooks in many ways.
Hypermedia enables the possibility to store, interconnect,
and provide access to a wide range of knowledge
presented in different ways [12]. Thus, hypertext and
hypermedia provide an ideal environment for learning
based on a constructivist approach. One alternative to
conventional lectures is a hypermedia presentation on the
World Wide Web (WWW), because vast information
resources are available to teachers and students via the
WWW. A presentation on the WWW can be supported by
coursework emphasizing learning as knowledge
construction.
Jonassen [13] claims that cognitive tools actively
engage learners in the creation of knowledge that reflects
their comprehension and conception of the information
rather than focusing on the presentation of objective
knowledge. These tools are learner controlled, not teacher
or technology driven. The use of a cognitive tool changes
the role of the student into that of an active learner.
Figure 1 shows cognitive tools in the general framework
for computer-based learning, which includes three
dimensions [13]. These dimensions are generativity,
control, and engagement.
Active
Cognitive
Tools
Engagement
Teacher/System
Control
Passive
Presentation
Creation
Student
the WWW we suggest a solution consisting of three
layers. These layers are (a) the support of guided tours as
a slideshow on the WWW, (b) the support of appropriate
links, and (c) the support of search engines and
directories. This approach may provide a real basis for
successful WWW-based coursework.
This paper has two purposes. First, it introduces our
WWW-based coursework as a way to apply the WWW in
the learning of basic concepts in informatics. Second, it
includes an evaluation of how dedicated the students who
completed the optional WWW-based coursework were
while learning different areas of informatics. Additionally,
the paper contains an evaluation of how three different
main areas, which are (1) skills in using computers, (2)
skills in using the Internet, and (3) knowing the basic
concepts, were developed during the course. We made all
the evaluations by comparing the students who completed
the coursework to the students who did not participate in
the coursework.
The paper is organized as follows: in section two we
describe the meaning of engagement and motivation in
learning. Section three describes constructivism as an
alternative view of learning. In section four we discuss the
opportunities of the WWW in learning. The fifth section
presents our research objectives based on the theoretical
discussion conducted earlier in this paper. The sixth
section presents our web-based course and evaluation of
the same from the perspective of engagement and
motivation as well as skills and learning basic concepts. In
section seven we summarize the results of the study and
draw conclusions.
Generativity
Figure 1. Cognitive tools in the general
framework for computer-based learning.
However, hypertext and hypermedia have their own
problems. They do not typically offer an explicit
mechanism to help learners better interpret and assimilate
information, the context surrounding its creation and use,
or the perspectives on the information of the author or
other learners [29]. Simply improving information access
without supporting learning leads directly to the problems
of "information overload" and being "lost-in-hyperspace".
Thus, students need some degree of guidance.
Additionally, the form and structure of hypermedia
presentations must be discussed. This is more important
in the era of the WWW. The problems inherent in any
information system such as disorientation, navigation
inefficiency and cognitive overload are multiplied on the
Internet [5].
The WWW provides both the possibility to organize
information in a strict form (e. g. using trails and guided
tours) and also opportunities for free "surfing" with its
advantages and disadvantages. To realize the benefits of
2. Engagement and motivation
The general framework for computer-based learning
presented in section one shows the importance of
evaluating motivation. Jonassen [13] claims that by using
cognitive tools in learning, a student's engagement in
learning is better. Thus, it is important to evaluate
motivation to show the depth of engagement in this way.
From the perspective of our research context many
problems in regard to learning the basics of informatics
make evaluating motivation important. Romano and
Balthazard [24] have summarized the problems. These
include limited individualized attention, cyberphobia, in
other words a fear of computers, a lack of interest in the
subject matter, limited or no access to interactive learning
software, and information overload leading to failure to
make associations.
Most commonly in learning from text, motivation is
understood both internally and externally [3, 4, 9, 17].
Internal motivation (or intrinsic motivation) reflects a
student's own interest in regard to espousing new
knowledge. It is associated with a human's high-level
needs such as self-actualization. External motivation (or
extrinsic motivation) reflects the need to reach goals set
by others. This is connected to a human's low-level needs
such as security and survival.
Motivation in learning from text can be evaluated as
shown in figure 2. Pre-motivation is the sum of preinterest and pre-benefit. Post-motivation is the sum of
post-interest and post-benefit. Internal motivation is the
sum of pre-interest and post-interest. External motivation
is the sum of pre-benefit and post-benefit.
Pre-interest






Pre-motivation
Internal
motivation
Pre-benefit
Post-interest
Post-motivation
External
motivation
Post-benefit
Figure 2. Motivation of learning from text.
3. Constructivism as an alternative view of
learning
In this section we introduce constructivism as an
alternative view of learning especially from the
perspective of the use of the WWW. Widely known and
discussed views associated with (computer-supported)
learning include behaviorism and its opposite
constructivism. Behaviorism is interested in a student's
behavior (reactions) in relation to teaching (stimulus),
while constructivism is interested in the mental processes
which affect the behavior of a student [23]. A traditional
lecture is mainly based on the behaviorist approach while
coursework and projects are typical constructivist learning
[27].
Jonassen [15] summarizes what he refers to as "the
implications of constructivism for instructional design".
The following principles illustrate how knowledge
construction can be facilitated by:


providing multiple representations of reality,
representing the natural complexity of the real
world,
focusing on knowledge construction, not
reproduction,
presenting authentic tasks (contextualizing rather
than abstracting instruction),
providing
real-world,
case-based
learning
environments,
rather
than
pre-determined
instructional sequences,
fostering reflective practice,
enabling
context-and
content-dependent
knowledge construction, and
supporting
collaborative
construction
of
knowledge through social negotiation.
According to Brandt [6], constructivism asserts that
learners construct knowledge by making sense of
experiences in terms of what is already known. In
constructivist learning the concept of a mental model is
essential. Learning is comprehended as the development
of a learner's mental models (or declarative and structural
knowledge). Brandt [6] emphasizes that constructivism is
an essential basis when applying the WWW for teaching
and learning. While the goal of constructivism is to
recognize and help to facilitate a learner's ability to
construct knowledge when applied to teaching information
retrieval on the Internet, it also provides the teacher with a
structure for teaching. By focusing on concepts and
connecting them to mental models, instructors and
teachers can gain both confidence and control over the
amount of material they cover in the small blocks of time
usually allotted to teaching and training. Integrated with
experiences that learners use to alter and strengthen
mental models, the constructivist approach to teaching
information retrieval also gives users the structure needed
to get the most out of the Internet.
Despite the promise of constructivism several
researchers emphasize the meaning of guidance. For
example, Silverman [26] points out that by providing the
right amount of traditional instruction, students seem to
favor constructivist environments. Additionally, he
suggests different tools (e.g. a multimedia authoring
environment, better communication media, and easily
integrated microworld simulators) to support lessons
based on the constructivist approach.
4. The WWW in learning
Vast information resources are available to teachers
and students via the WWW. However, the problems
inherent in any information system such as disorientation,
navigation inefficiency and cognitive overload are
multiplied on the Internet [6]. On the other hand, these
problems can be overcome using a suitable pedagogical
approach and/or appropriate tools. Constructivism, which
is mentioned in section three, is the basic approach for
Internet solutions in learning. Additionally, it is useful to
discuss the use of the WWW from other perspectives. In
this section we introduce trails and guided tours as a way
of improving the usefulness of the WWW. In addition, we
introduce the concepts of situated action and cognitive
flexibility, since these concepts are useful while applying
the WWW for learning.
One way to organize a presentation on the WWW is to
provide trails and guided tours. Trails connect a chain of
links through information spaces [2]. These can include
multiple "recommended" trails through a network. Guided
tours restrict users to the trail, prohibiting detours. While
trails lower the cognitive overhead (or overload) by
recommending the next logical link to take, guided tours
reduce the overhead further by removing all other choices.
Thus, they can also prevent the phenomenon of ‘lost-inhyperspace’.
Chen and Rada [8] stress the term "situated action",
which emphasizes the interrelationship between an action
and its context of performance. Additionally, according to
Bruckman et al. [7] and Koschmann [16], the success of a
computer-supported learning environment depends not
just on the software, but on the context in which that
software is used. Situated action theory emphasizes a
person's responsiveness to the environment and focuses on
the improvisory nature of human activity [21] and the
local management of activity as mediated by relevant
environmental cues [1, 28]. The implications for learning
are that appropriate actions are generated from
recognition of appropriate opportunities given by the
context.
In addition to situated action theory, Jacobson et al.
[12] also emphasize the meaning of cognitive flexibility
theory affecting hypertext-based learning. This theory was
initially formulated to address factors contributing to
failures to learn complex knowledge at advanced
instructional levels. It proposes that complex knowledge
may be better learned for flexible application in new
contexts by employing case-based learning environments
that include features such as: (a) the use of multiple
knowledge representations, (b) linking abstract concepts
in cases to depict knowledge-in-use, (c) demonstrating the
conceptual interconnectedness or web-like nature of
complex knowledge, (d) emphasizing knowledge
assembly rather than reproductive memory, (e)
introducing both conceptual complexity and domain
complexity early, and (f) promoting active student
learning. These features have been used prescriptively to
specify design elements for complex, multidimensional,
and nonlinear environments such as hypertext and
hypermedia.
Based on the above it is important to comprehend
views of learning while outlining courses as well as
comprehending ways of using the WWW in learning. We
stress three issues. First, we must discuss what the right
amount of traditional (behaviorist) teaching is. Second, we
must analyze what the right way to use the WWW is.
Active learning must be promoted and the pitfalls of the
WWW must be avoided. Third, scaffolding support is
needed to support constructivist learning based on the
WWW.
5. Research objectives of this paper
Because constructivism is the leading approach to
learning of our time, we evaluate learning based on this
approach. Our main focus is to show how successful the
learning process has been. We conducted this evaluation
principally on the basis of two views:
1) the meaningfulness of learning,
2) understanding of the basic concepts.
Secondarily, we are interested in use skills, because
these indirectly show how the concepts are learned.
6. A solution for WWW-based learning:
coursework and its evaluation
We pursued a study concerning WWW coursework
based on the idea of trails and guided tours supported by
the use of search engines and directories. In this section
we describe our experiment, sample, measures and tests,
followed by the results of our study.
6.1. Experiment
At the University of Jyväskylä the themes of an
introductory course in automatic data processing are (1)
introduction (including such themes as the meaning of
automatic data processing, the information society and
problems in utilizing computers), (2) presentation of data
in the PC environment, (3) computer software, (4)
hardware technology, (5) data communications, and (6)
the meaning of information technology in business. The
course usually lasts 10 weeks including lectures (8 hours),
compulsory practical exercises in basic skills with
personal computers and the Internet (18 hours) as well as
a final examination. The course given in spring 1998 also
lasted for this length of time and included the abovementioned activities and in addition material and activities
on the WWW to support the lectures in the constructivist
fashion.
Our approach to using the WWW for teaching and
learning on this course was to combine




the idea of trails and guided tours on the WWW,
both
behaviorist
teaching/learning
and
constructivist learning,
situated action, and
cognitive flexibility theory.
In the WWW-based learning the basic point is situated
action. The constructivist approach is the commonly
accepted principle for learning. Since the structural form
of knowledge (or knowledge structures) is typical for the
basic concepts of informatics [20], it is also natural to
approach the learning and teaching of it from the
perspective of constructivism. However, in our context, in
the basics of informatics, students may need guidance at
the beginning of learning. Thus, the traditional learning
methods in the behaviorist manner must be accepted as a
part of teaching and learning methods.
The students were introduced to our approach and the
pre-questionnaire administered at the beginning of the
course. The results of this questionnaire [18] support our
approach, since over 58% of the students considered both
the lectures and printed lecture notes and the material on
the WWW significant or strongly significant (based on a
5-point Likert scale ranging from strongly insignificant to
strongly significant). Additionally, less than 9% of the
students considered both the lectures and printed lecture
notes and the material on the WWW insignificant and
none of them strongly insignificant.
We organized our basic course lectures on the basis of
the above-mentioned approach. Thus, the lectures
consisted of




printed lecture notes, which all students obtained
at the beginning of the course,
conventional lectures (8 hours),
lecture notes on the WWW including links to
supporting sites, and
optional coursework using the WWW in regard to
lecture notes on the WWW.
Due to our context, we claim that conventional lectures
and printed lecture notes are needed as a behaviorist part
of the course, but lecture notes on the WWW provide an
opportunity for a constructivist approach. The lecture
notes on the WWW were organized in the form of a
slideshow using Microsoft Powerpoint 97 and its Internet
assistant. These tools permit the slides in each lecture to
be organized in the strict form of a guided tour on the
WWW providing support for a student who is at the
beginning of learning in informatics and not familiar with
computers and the WWW. Each slide in the slideshow
may include a set of links to interesting WWW sites and
in this manner a slideshow can also be comprehended as a
trail. Our slides included links concerning the critical
concepts to the appropriate link pages, which were
evaluated as supporting the learning of these concepts
best. The selection of the links on the slides was based on
the list of critical concepts for learning produced by a
group of teachers (n=12) of informatics at our university.
Since the slides are on the WWW, a student can also
support his or her learning using search engines and
directories. Thus, the form of a lecture is flexible and it
can be seen as a trail or a guided tour depending on the
situation and information needs. This allows different
views and brings a real constructivist way of learning,
since the role of instructional media shifts from one which
seeks to maximize the communication of fixed content
and/or skills to one in which students engage in the
knowledge
construction
process:
constructing
interpretations, appreciating multiple perspectives,
developing and defending their own positions while
recognizing other views, and becoming aware of and able
to manipulate the knowledge construction process itself.
In this sense our approach is also consistent with cognitive
flexibility theory.
To realize the benefit of the lecture notes on the
WWW we organized coursework in which students were
expected to enter their findings in their personal diaries.
These findings included their opinion about (a) the
general form of presentation, (b) the links provided by the
teacher, and (c) the links found by the students themselves
using search engines and directories. Additionally, the
students were expected to give various examples of what
they had learned during the coursework. To promote the
students' participation in the optional coursework, the
students got credits by completing the coursework for the
final examination. Although the coursework is a
constructivistic part of the course, the teacher's office
hours were available as an additional resource to promote
their work. The students had six and a half weeks for the
coursework before the final examination. The work was
expected to be conducted as an individual task or in
groups of two or three students.
6.2. Sample
One hundred and three students, 78 females and 26
males, whose mean age was 23 years (range 19-42 years),
entered the course and completed both pre- and posttreatments. All the students were familiar with university
lecturing. They familiarized themselves with the use of a
WWW browser and basic search engines and directories
(i. e. Altavista and Yahoo) before the introduction of the
optional coursework. All the students studied informatics
as a minor. During the course they were required to
participate in practicals concerning the use of personal
computers and the Internet (18 hours) and all the students
had the same exercises concerning these matters.
Participating in the lectures (8 hours) and the coursework
was optional.
Forty-six of the students, 38 females and 8 males,
whose mean age was 22 years (range 19-40 years),
participated in the optional coursework. 17 of them
completed the coursework individually, 23 in groups of
two students and 6 in groups of three students. The
students spent 13 hours (range 5-30 hours) on the
coursework on average. They attended 6.5 hours of
lectures and spent 43 hours on the whole course on
average. We call this group the WWW group in this
paper.
Fifty-seven students, 39 females and 18 males, whose
mean age was 23 years (range 19-42 years) did not
complete the optional coursework. These students
attended 4.9 hours of lectures and spent 31 hours on the
whole course on average. We call this group the nonWWW group in this paper.
6.3. Collecting data
The data for this study was collected by administering
a questionnaire both at the beginning and end of the
course to both types of groups. The respondents rated
each theme of the course with regard to (a) how
interesting they considered the themes of the course
(where 1=very uninteresting and 5=interesting), and (b)
how beneficial they considered the themes of the course
(where 1=very useless and 5=very useful).
Additionally, in the questionnaires both at the
beginning and the end of the course the respondents were
expected to analyze their:



computer use skills,
Internet use skills, and
knowledge of the basic concepts in informatics.
The respondents ranked these skills or knowledge on a
5 point Likert scale (where 1=very poor and 5=very
good).
6.4. Results
The Kolmogorov test showed that the data based on the
responses of the students concerning the themes of the
course agreed with the normal distribution. Thus, the oneway ANOVA test was appropriate for statistical analysis
of the data. However, the Kolmogorov test showed that
the data based on the students' rankings concerning their
skills and knowledge disagreed with the normal
distribution. Thus, the Mann-Whitney test as a
nonparametric test was appropriate for statistical analysis
of the data.
We calculated the scores for pre-motivation, postmotivation, internal and external motivation of each
theme. This was based on the framework presented in
section two. The one-way ANOVA test did not show
significant differences in pre-motivation between the NonWWW group and the WWW group in regard to any
theme of our course (p varying between .061 and .513).
Additionally, the one-way ANOVA test did not show
significant differences in post-motivation between the
Non-WWW group and the WWW group in regard to any
theme of our course (p varying between .094 and .974).
Based on the one-way ANOVA test the study found
that the WWW-based coursework affected both external
and internal motivation equally in most cases (in these
cases p varying between .131 and .973 in regard to
internal motivation and p varying between .043 and .753
in regard to external motivation). External motivation was
significantly higher in the group of students without the
optional coursework in learning the basic concepts of
information technology in business (the mean of the NonWWW group was 8.54, that of the WWW group 7.91,
p=.043).
Concerning skills and knowledge, and based on the
Mann-Whitney test, the study found that the optional
WWW-based coursework was useful in the learning of
Internet skills and the basic concepts of informatics.
However, the coursework did not improve general
computer use skills significantly. Statistical analysis
showed that the coursework was most beneficial in the
learning of the basic concepts. The difference between the
groups was extremely significant at the beginning and at
the end the difference was highly equivalent. The results
show that WWW-based coursework can help students to
learn the basic concepts of informatics. If a student is a
real beginner (a novice) concerning both skills in using a
computer and knowledge of basic concepts WWW-based
coursework can be especially useful. The details of the
analysis concerning skills and knowledge are shown in
table 1 (see next page). For this analysis the students were
expected to evaluate their skills and knowledge based on a
5-point Likert scale in the questionnaires. The non-WWW
group refers to the students who did not complete the
WWW-based coursework and the WWW group to the
students who completed the optional WWW-based
coursework.
Table 1. Analyzing the students' skills and
knowledge.
Mean at the beginning Mean at the end of
of the course
the course
NonNonWWW WWW
WWW WWW
group group p
group group p
Computer use 2.66
2.17 .004 3.38 3.00 .003
skill
Internet use 2.54
2.11 .039 3.47 3.57 .553
skill
Knowledge of 2.14
1.65 .003 2.71 2.74 .888
the
basic
concepts
in
informatics
7. Discussion
The study found that the main effects of WWW-based
coursework are skills and knowledge rather than the
meaningfulness of learning (or motivation). Thus,
considering the theoretical discussion the results presented
in this paper are contradictory. In the sense of the cube of
computer-supported learning presented in the introduction
to this paper, the WWW coursework does not support
constructivistic learning. However, the positive result
concerning the learning of the basic concepts shows that
our coursework supports constructivistic learning in the
sense of the development of students' mental models.
Additionally, the results of our previous papers [19, 20]
confirm the results concerning the learning of basic
concepts. Especially in our most recent paper [20] we
showed that WWW-based coursework improves learning
outcomes concerning the learning of the basic concepts. In
the analysis section of that paper we compared the
students who had completed the optional coursework to
the students who had not participated in the optional
coursework. For the evaluation we utilized a SOLO
(Structure of Observed Learning Outcome) taxonomybased measure to clarify learning outcomes and their
quality, because this reflects the quality and development
of a student's knowledge structures [5]. Additionally, in
the analysis section of this paper we found that WWWbased coursework was useful for Internet skills, which is
however a very natural effect.
The results contained in this paper leave open
questions. First, what are the reasons for the success of the
WWW-based coursework concerning the development of
conceptual knowledge? Second, why does WWW-based
coursework not improve the meaningfulness of learning?
To both questions answers will be found by analyzing the
coursework reports and questionnaires in detail. Our
preliminary analysis of the students' coursework [19] also
supports the results outlined in this paper and partly
provides an answer to the first question presented in this
paragraph. We found that especially the slideshow format,
links and appropriate link pages are beneficial to learning.
Search engines and directories are less effective in
learning than guided tours in the form of slideshows or
links and link pages (destinations) [19]. However, we
claim that search engines and directories may be more
effective subsequent to the basic course in informatics
when students are more familiar with these tools. Based
on this preliminary analysis of the coursework we can
claim that in our context, the basics of informatics, the
least apt part of the coursework was search engines and
directories and it is worth studying why. In the same way
it is worth studying why our slideshow format and links on
slides were more successful in promoting learning. In the
coursework students were required to give reasons for
their ratings and analyzing this information will clarify
what the reasons for success or failure were.
Nevertheless, the results contained in this paper and in
our previous papers [18, 19, 20] show that based on many
reasons it is useful to combine behavioristic teaching and
constructivistic learning utilizing the WWW in our
context. The WWW-based coursework, designed in a
constructivistic manner, especially helped the students
who were real beginners (novices) in the field of
informatics. In this way everyone had the opportunity to
learn.
This study was conducted in Finland, where the rate of
Internet use is one of the highest in the world [10]. Finns
are very technology-oriented people and the penetration
rates for many other technological solutions, such as
cellular phones, are at a very high level compared to
many other countries. Thus, the coursework presented in
this paper is a good solution for web-based teaching and
learning in countries highly advanced in IT such as the
other countries of the European Union and in the USA.
8. Author note
Special thanks are reserved for Dr. Seppo Puuronen,
M. A. Armi Rintala, M. A. Markku J. Suihkonen, and M.
A. Tony Melville from Jyväskylä in Finland for their ideas
and assistance in the preparation of this paper.
Additionally, the author is grateful to Dr. Urban Nuldén
and M. Sc. (Econ.) Christian Hardless from Gothenburg in
Sweden for their helpful comments and assistance.
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