The University of Melbourne
FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING AND PLANNING
CULTURE & HISTORY of URBAN PLANNING
705-117
Lecture Notes
©1999 C.M.Gutjahr
PART 3 - CLASSICAL ANTIQUITY Rome
Comparison between Greek and Roman City
Origins of Roman Planning
1.
(a)
ITALIC, ETRUSCAN and LATIN INFLUENCES
The Religious Element
In founding a new city, the Romans carried out four ritual procedures,
which have been attributed to their Etruscan predecessors (or to the even
earlier Terramare period).
These rites accompanied the founding of military camps and cities and
established Rome's formal planning concept:
i.
Inauguratio
ii.
Limitatio
iii.
Orientatio
iv.
Consecratio
(b)
The Military Element
In the course of establishing and maintaining their authority, first in Italy itself and later
throughout their vast empire, the Romans needed to
build thousands of fortified
legionary camps.
For utilitarian reasons, such camps had to be of simple plan, quick to erect and set out
and, generally, repetitive in detail and construction. The result was the standard,
rectangular CASTRUM ROMANUM PLAN i.e. the Roman Camp Plan.
2.
GREEK-HELLENISTIC HERITAGE
(a)
The Idea of the Castrum Plan
(b)
The Spatial Concepts within the City
The organization of urban spaces in Roman Planning derived from the:
Greek agora
Hellenistic stoas
vertical layout of such towns as Pergamon. (?)
(c)
The Basic Architectural Concepts
are also similar to Greek and Hellenistic examples:
-
courtyard house
temples plus colonnades
theatres
building terms and stylistic features
Development of Building and Planning Styles
1.
At beginning, Rome draws freely on the Greek and Etruscan planning
heritage.
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2.
Subsequently, it evolves into a colonial style within Italy.
3.
Then into a military planning style in the provinces which had been conquered.
Activity in provinces acquaints Rome with achievements of other civilizations e.g.
Greek, Hellenistic.
4.
Influence of foreign planning led to the more monumental style of planning during
the Roman Empire.
Note:
The purely Roman planning contribution, however, is rather modest; it is limited
to the Castrum Romanum with its regular layout and including
the
characteristically Roman elements: the Capitol and the Forum.
The Mediterranean World in 265 BC.
THE CASTRUM ROMANUM
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only
two
Two Roman camps along the Danube
each became the nucleus of a later, important city : RATISBON and VIENNA
(Benevolo)
"Together with the Etruscan and the later Roman rules of founding cities, the castrum plan
provided the basis of Roman Planning".
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All new, planned Roman towns, either of temporary or permanent intention, were laid out in the
form of the legionary camp plan.
(At first, the need for planning was almost exclusively a military one; all Roman towns and cities
were symbols of Rome's presence, and were subordinate to the city of Rome itself).
Plan of a typical Roman Military Camp1:
Castrum Romanum
The elements of the Castrum Plan are:
The Wall
The Principal Streets
CARDO
(or VIA PRINCIPALIS) N to S (First Main Street)
DECUMANUS E to W (Second Main Street)
These two principal cross-roads formed the basis of the internal layout of the Roman camp plan.
Minor residential streets would further sub-divide the 4 quarters of the plan into individual building
blocks (insulae).
The Gates
Situated at the four meeting points between the two main streets and the urban walls i.e. one
gate in the centre of each side of the plan:
Porta Principalis Sinistra
(N)
Porta Principalis Dextra
(S)
Porta Praetoria
(E)
Porta Decumana
(W)
The Major Buildings and Spaces
1
Note: Porta Principalis Dextra and Sinistra are, incorrectly, inverted on the plan!
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The castrum system of town design provided a simple and well - organized framework for the
location of various Roman Buildings.
At, or near the centre were:
the Forum
(open square + colonnades)
the Capitol Public Offices (Quaestorium, Praetorium)
the Basilica
(Hall used for public meetings and as law courts)
temple(s)
library
(sometimes)
Plan of the city of TRIER
during the Roman Empire
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Castrum Plan of VERONA
late 1st century BC
(Ward-Perkins)
The CANABAE or 'suburbs'
The unplanned civilian settlements which invariably spring up outside the gates of the camp or
castrum, specifically along main exist routes.
These ultimately become towns/cities in their own right or are absorbed within the urban
boundaries of the existing city: e.g. CARNUNTUM on the Danube.
Plan of City of Como of 1858
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outline of Roman Camp plan clearly visible
Examples:
POMPEII
6th century BC
founded as Greek colonial city
3rd - 1st century BC
in form it is a late Hellenistic city - rebuilt
between end of 3rd and beginning of 1st centuries.
during this period Greek city building practice
gradually gives way to Roman methods.
79 AD
city destroyed through volcanic eruption (Vesuvius)
Plan of Pompeii
(Gallion & Eisner)
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Courtyard House [domus}:
'Casa di Capitelli figurati'
Pompeii
Page 8
Pompeii: 'Casa del Fauno'
Large peristyle house (domus)
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TIMGAD (Thamugadi)
located 24 miles east of Batna, in Algeria, North Africa.
100 AD
built by Emperor Trajan for veterans of 3rd Legion stationed at
nearby fort of Lamaesis.
often quoted as classic example of Roman chessboard planning,
shows both the strengths and weaknesses (canabae) of Roman
town
planning.
Plan of TIMGAD
ROME
the city itself
(i)
Historical Development
Rome, the 'city of the 7 hills' had its origins in hill villages built by the Latin tribes; these
had moved down to the TIber river plain from the hills to the south-east.
ROMAN REPUBLIC
510-27 BC
10th century BC original village settlement on Palatine Hill in the province
of Latium.
753 BC
Romulus and Remus (descendants of Aeneas of Troy)
legendary founders of Rome on April 21st.
settlement on Quirinal Hill.
Two villages merge to form Rome. Gradually, 5 (five)
other fortress settlements join in. These are the hill-top
settlements of the
Capitoline,
Viminal,
Caelian,
6th century BC
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Esquiline,
Aventine hills
-
At this stage, Etruscans are still masters of Northern
Italy, while the south is under Greek influence.
510 BC
Etruscan King driven out by Roman nobility. Begin of
Roman Republic and City's rise to fame and power.
up to 270 BC
Rome fully committed to establishing her mastery over
Italian Peninsula.
Gradual subjection of neighbours; Rome grows in wealth
and power but in size it is still smaller than:
Tarquinia
(capital of Etruscans)
Capua
Tarentus
Syracus
386 BC
Gauls burn down city - only capitol withstands.
378-352 BC
Romans rebuild their city; earthen wall which had kept
Gauls out now replaced by 10m high "Republican Wall".
Military force improves in strength and quality.
338 BC
Rome rules over other cities in central Italy (Latium):
Etruscan power falls; Greek colonies divided among
themselves.
Rome, triumphant, now rules area of 4,650
sq. miles (12,000 sq. km) and over
400,000 inhabitants.
by 264
Rome achieves control over most of Italy and becomes
largest state west of Greece.
Plan of Republican Rome
(Benevolo)
264-202 BC
Punic Wars
Series of wars against Carthage in which Rome reaches out beyond
Italy as its disciplined armies conquer on all fronts, e.g.:
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241
238
229
225
206
in Sicily
in Sardinia + Corsica
in Yugoslavia (Illyria)
in Northern Italy
in most of Spain
Consequences of Wars
218-203 BC
The bitter struggle against Hannibal was won in the end but the
entire area of southern Italy was ravaged causing a social
revolution, which was later to contribute to Rome's fall.
146 BC
Carthage and Corinth flattened; Asia Minor conquered.
Military successes provided Rome with abundant supply of land,
gold, slaves etc. yet Rome could not readily adjust to the sudden
wealth.
Repeated attempts by Roman leaders, Tiberius and Gajus
Gracchus, to make the lot of peasants and the landless class easier
by introducing land reform and relief, failed. This led to :
121 BC
The Civil Wars
introduction of Gracchan Laws (Gaius Gracchus).
84-82 BC Sulla versus Marius [another bloody civil war].
73 BC
Spartacus and 60,00 slaves and plebeians plunder Italy and
march on Rome; for a time, armed factions rule capital.
44 BC
31 BC
Caesar versus Pompeius [another civil war].
Caesar assassinated; confrontation between his successors, Marcus
Antonius and Octavianus.
Octavianus triumphs; returns to Rome to become Emperor Augustus (27 B.C)
ROMAN EMPIRE 27 BC - 395 AD
395 AD
Empire divided into:
WESTERN EMPIRE 395 - 476 AD
EASTERN EMPIRE 395 - 1453 AD
ii.
Planning During the Empire
Development of Roman planning during rise of Empire, was characterised by:
in Rome and other large towns:
(a)
(b)
STRUCTURAL CHANGE and ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
POPULATION GROWTH and URBAN EXPANSION
Total Population in Roman Empire:
1st-2nd Century AD
Italy
Rome
Iberia
Egypt
3rd-5th Century AD
7,000,000
350,000
6,000,000
4,500,000
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4,000,000
65,000
4,000,000
3,000,000
Alexandria
Syria, Palestine
Greece & the
Balkans
Byzantium
Asia Minor
216,000
4,400,000
3,000,000
122,000
3,000,000
3,000,000
24,000
8,800,000
150,000
11,600,000
Source:
Russell, J.C. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, Volume 48, Part 3,
Philadelphia, Pa. 1958.
abroad:
(c)
ACTIVE PROCESS of URBANIZATION
iii.
Housing Types and Standards
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
DOMUS
TABERNA
INSULA, CENACULA
VILLA
Older Courtyard House [domus] from Pompeii
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Section of Insula with separate Cenaculae
OSTIA: 'Casa di Serapid'
Plan of Insula with separate Cenaculae
OSTIA : 'Casa di Diana'
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DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE
Events
200 AD
Rome begins to crumble under the pressure exerted by Germanic
Tribes to the north, and under internal rivalries and warfare.
211-217 AD
Emperor Caracalla extends citizenship to all free men of the Empire
(by which time it wasn't worth very much).
War against the Parthians and Germanic tribes.
Brought about severe economic crisis.
Built the elaborate Caracalla Baths, in Rome.
218-235 AD
Emperors Elagabalus (a degenerate) and Alexander Severus.
Empire in crisis.
284-305 AD
Emperor Diocletian. Reforms lead to absolutist autocracy run by
hierachical public service machine.
Persecution of Christians.
4th century AD
Empire falls apart at the seams.
330 AD
395 AD
Emperor Constantine makes Byzantium, his capital and
the new centre of the Empire, named CONSTANTINOPLE.
Emperor Theodosius makes permanent the administrative separation
of 330 A.D. between the West and East Roman Empires.
410 AD
the Westgoths conquer Rome.
455 AD
the Vandals follow; Rome sacked a second time
(Vandalism - a term coined by French Bishop Gregoire in 1794).
476 AD
Western Roman Empire surrenders its power and breaks
up into Germanic Kingdoms.
Reasons
1.
The enormity of the size of the Empire.
2.
Rome's colonies were not self-governing or self-sufficient.
3.
The conquered barbarians turned on the Empirial Power and engineered
collapse.
4.
Disruption of monetary system (silver coinage)
5.
Corruption of Roman political, economic and social life.
6.
Roman army in the provinces (largely composed of non-Romans) was
unreliable and rebellious.
The Legacy of Roman Planning
1.
The idea of the architectural organisation or order of the city
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its
Wherever Rome colonized, it established its symbols i.e. theatres, arenas, forum,
capitol, triumphal arches and regularly laid out dwellings districts.
2.
The Idea of Architectural Monumentality
3.
The Magnitude of the Planning Achievement
Rome founded over 5,627 new towns and cities and built 140,000 km of
roads, many have disintegrated since.
4.
Rome's Contribution as an Organiser and Administrator
Rome passed laws and regulations applying to everything and everyone:
45 BC
Lex Julia Municipalis, under Caesar
which regulated street repairs and maintenance of dwellings
69-70 AD
Decree of Vespasianus
gave everyone right of claim to building site if owner failed
to
build on it.
Rome seriously tackled the problem of regulating disputes between persons living
side by side in an urban society and established principles of lasting value:
•
•
all persons of same status enjoy equal rights
better for the guilty to go free than for an innocent to suffer
The Weaknesses of Roman Planning
•
failed in its potential role as a 'teacher' and 'facilitator' of urban culture;
imposed its will and views on the conquered regions by force.
•
city plans inflexible and repetitive; interior layouts rigid and formalized.
•
Roman cities could not cope with urban growth (physical expansion);
canabae.
•
instead, it
hence the
structural changes within cities proved crippling.
The Role of Empires
Refer to Gideon Sjoberg's argument that empires and cities are interdependent; read
"The Origin and Evolution of Cities" in Cities, pp. 25-39, a Scientific American Book.
The Close of the Ancient World
306-
Constantine, emperor of Rome, carried on plan originally envisaged by
Page 16
337 AD
Augustus, to provide the great empire with an eastern capital (as eastern part of
empire then dominant in terms of population numbers and commercial activity).
326
Byzantium is chosen as new capital (in preference to Troy and Alexandria) and
renamed Constantinople (330).
395
Empire divided into East and West; Rome Capital of West Roman Empire
[from 404 Ravenna]; Constantinople capital of East Roman or Byzantine Empire.
476
Western Roman Empire falls and Constantinople assumes control over the
diminishing remains of Roman Empire for another ten centuries. Finally, defeated
by Turks in 1453.
622
Period of Antiquity brought to an end with rise of Islam, as an important power in the
Mediterranean and Oriental worlds.
Upon fall of Rome, centre of gravity of urbanization shifts from the Mediterranean to the Islamic
world and to Asia (China and India).
Map of Byzantine Empire under Emperor Justinian
(Müller/Vogel)
Bibliography Part 3:
Classical Antiquity: Rome
Principal references are shown in bold.
Bacon, E. (1967), Design of Cities, London, Thames & Hudson, pp. 68-77.
Balsdon, J.P., Roman Civilisation, Harmondsworth, Penguin Books.
Barrow, R.H. (1949), The Romans, Harmondsworth, Penguin Books.
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Bell, C. & Bell, R. (1969) City Fathers: The Early History of Town Planning in Britain, London,
Barrie & Rockliff: the Cresset Press, pp 7-12.
Benevolo, L. (1980), The History of the City, Scolar Press, London.
Carcopino, J. (1962), Daily Life in Ancient Rome, Harmondsworth, Penguin Books.
Castagnoli, F. (1971) Orthogonal town planning in Antiquity, Cambridge M.I.T. Press, Chapter 6,
Collingwood, R.G. & Myres, J.N.L. (1937), Roman Britain and English Settlements, Oxford
History of England Book 1, Oxford University Press.
Gutkind, E.A. (1969), Urban Development in Southern Europe: Italy and Greece, Vol. IV International History of City Development New York, the Free Press, pp. 9-63, 181205.
Gutkind, E.A. (1971) Urban Development in Western Europe: The Netherlands and Great Britain
New York, The Free Press, pp 134-151.
Haverfield, F. (1913) Ancient Town Planning, Oxford, Clarendon Press, Chap. 1
Hibbert, C. (1985), Rome: The Biography of a City, Viking, Chapters 1-4.
Hiorns, F. (1956), Town Building in History, London, Harrap, pp.44-75.
Mazzolani, L.S. (1970) The Idea of the City in Roman Thought: from walled city to spiritual
commonwealth, Hollis & Carter, London.
Morris, A.E.J. (1972), History of Urban Form, London, George Godwin, pp.37-62.
Moholy-Nagy S. (1968) Matrix of Man: An illustrated History of Urban Environment, London.
Mumford, L. (1966), The City in History, Harmondsworth, Penguin Books. Chapter 8.
Richardson, Jr. L. (1988), Pompeii: An Architectural History, John Hopkins, University Press.
Richmond, I.A. (1955), Roman Britain, Penguin Books.
Rykwert, Joseph (1988), The Idea of a Town, Cambridge, Mass., M.I.T. Press.
Sellman, R.R. (1956) Roman Britain, London, Methuen Outline.
Stambaugh, J.E. (1988), The Ancient Roman City, Baltimore, London, John Hopkins, University
Press.
Stewart, C. (1952), A prospect of Cities, London, Longmans & Company, pp. 21-55.
Wacher, J.S. (1979, The Coming of Rome (Britain before the Conquest). Routledge & Kegan
Paul, London.
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