The Age of Mexican Liberalism
Political Instability
•Recall: in the period prior to the Mexican-American War (1824-1846), the Mexican
Republic struggled to find a political structure that was universally endorsed by the
nation  a central republic vs. a federal republic
•The conflict with the United States set aside political antagonisms in Mexico in the
defense of national sovereignty, but only temporarily
•Conflict with the United States also increased social demands among Mexicans:
–Mexicans demanded that the constitution clearly and non-arbitrarily define citizenship
and individual rights
–These social demands grew out of increased public awareness during the MexicanAmerican War  during the conflict, Mexicans were granted citizenship and individual
rights by serving in state militias or in the national army
Political Instability
•The consequences of war with the United States (foreign occupation and violation of
national sovereignty, loss of national territory) demonstrated for many Mexicans that a
central government was incapable of administering and defending the nation
•Under the movement of liberal federalism, liberal Mexicans acted in the interest of new
social demands and for a strong federal government
–Liberals demanded that the Mexican government extend and guarantee the policy of
equality before the law to all Mexicans
–Along with other sectors of Mexican society (small communities, liberal landowners,
and opponents of centralism), liberals demanded that the government divide its powers
among the states and the Union
Mexico Divided
•Liberal federalism unified the popular classes of Mexico (the indigenous, poor mestizos
and castas) with middle-class Mexican liberals
•The rest of Mexican society, however, remained divided  upper class, wealth, and
landowning Mexicans and the Church believed that democracy and republicanism
(constitutionalism and federal government) were the cause of Mexico’s problems
(financial loss and debt, a disruptive populace, foreign invasion)
•These conservative sectors of Mexican society advocated a constitutional monarchy for
Mexico  a strong, central monarch could mitigate Mexico’s problems
The Revolution of Ayutla
•In the early 1850s, a group of Mexican liberals led by Benito Juárez, called for a plan to
overthrow the centralist rule (essentially a dictatorship) of Santa Anna
•Plan of Ayutla: a 1854 proposal that expounded liberal principles (i.e., individual rights,
equality before the law for all, federal government) and grievances committed by Santa
Anna
•The Revolution of Ayutla quickly gained popular support throughout Mexico and
succeeded in ousting Santa Anna from power in 1855
Liberal Federalism Victory
•After the liberal victory in the Revolution of Ayutla, monarchist sectors of Mexican
society revolted against the liberals but were defeated
•In 1857, the Mexican Congress (dominated by liberal federalists) established a new
federal republic and a new constitution
The Constitution of 1857
•The Constitution of 1857 incorporated many principles of liberal federalism:
–The constitution clearly defined individual rights (i.e., freedom of speech, freedom to
education, freedom of the press, equality before the law, protection of property, the right
to bear arms, the right to due process, etc.)
–The constitution did not specify Roman Catholicism as the sole religion of the state 
the constitution implicitly allowed for religious plurality, toleration and, thus, freedom of
religion
–The constitution also incorporated what are known as the Reform or “Juárez” laws 
legislation that abolished military and Church privileges and immunities
–The Reform or “Juárez” laws also stipulated that non-ecclesiastic property owned by the
Church and non-military buildings owned by state or national militia would be put up for
auction to the Mexican public
Conservative Reaction to the Constitution of 1857
•The Constitution of 1857 alienated the Church and the military in Mexico as the
constitution eliminated the rights, privileges, and property of these institutions
•The Church threatened excommunication to any and all Mexicans who accepted and
abided to the constitution (as well as those who purchased former Church property) 
the Pope, Pius IX, supported the Church in Mexico, refuting the validity of the
constitution (the beginning of church-state antagonisms)
Civil War: The War of Reform
•The Constitution of 1857 divided Mexican society among liberals and conservatives 
profound division of Mexican society resulted in civil war
•Plan de Tacubaya: 1858 conservative plan that sought to re-establish central
government and sought to abolish the 1857 Constitution
•Conservatives quickly assumed control of Mexico City and forced the liberals out of the
capital  conservatives named their own president
•Liberals, led by Benito Juárez, fled north to Querétaro  at Querétaro, Mexican liberals
declared Juárez president
Civil War: The War of Reform
•The civil war lasted three years in Mexico (1858-1860)
•Although the liberals eventually established a new capital at Veracruz, they struggled
mightily during the first two years of the conflict  conservatives had support of the
national army (better trained, equipped, and better military leadership)
•Civil war caused devastation throughout Mexico as soldiers from both sides caused
massive damage to civilians and public buildings  the (conservative or liberal) “cause”
justified the soldiers’ actions
Civil War: The War of Reform
•By 1860, liberals had gained the upper hand
–Conservative forces disputed amongst each other
–The emergence of two excellent liberal commanders: Jesús González Ortega and
Ignacio Zaragoza
•In December of 1860, liberal forces defeated the conservative army and captured
Mexico City  victory of liberal federalism
Benito Juárez
•Once the
liberals regained control of the government, presidential elections were held in
March 1861 and Juárez was elected president
•Juárez was a Zapotec Indian born in 1806 in the state of Oaxaca
•Until the age of 12, Juárez was illiterate and did not speak Spanish, only spoke the
indigenous language of Zapotec
•After age 12, he traveled to the capital of Oaxaca (Oaxaca City) and was educated in a
seminary school
•Instead of pursuing a religious life, Juárez found his calling in politics; he attended and
graduated from law school in Oaxaca and soon became a skillful politician
Benito Juárez
•As president, Juárez remained true to the ideals of the constitution, particularly the
separation between state and Church  in fact, the secularization of the state increased
under Juárez, eliciting positive approval from the Mexican public
•Juárez’s dedication to upholding the ideals and principles of liberal federalism and the
1857 Constitution strengthened opposition among Mexican conservatives, especially the
Church
Foreign Intervention
•At the same time, liberalism was spreading in Europe and the Vatican equated liberalism
with anticlericalism  the goals of opposing liberalism and preserving Church power
united both Mexican and European conservatives (an alliance was created between
Mexican and European conservatives)
•The civil war in Mexico left the government nearly bankrupt
•The Mexican state, attempting to rebuild and prevent further loss to the Mexican
economy, failed to pay international loans  European lenders, particularly England,
France, and Spain, demanded debt payment
•Mexico’s failure to pay its international debt resulted in foreign occupation:
–On Oct. 31, 1861, England, France, and Spain agreed to occupy the eastern coast of
Mexico in order to collect their payment
Foreign Invasion
•In December 1861, England, France, and Spain invaded Mexico at the port of Veracruz
and marched inland
•In addition to collecting finances, the French Emperor Napoleon III desired to establish
French hegemony in Mexico  Napoleon III wanted to establish a French Empire in
Mexico
•After learning of France’s intentions, both England and Spain pulled out of Mexico 
the French continued its march towards Mexico City
The French Intervention
•On May 5, 1862, French forces reached the city of Puebla
–The city was defended by Mexican forces led by two generals, Ignacio Zaragoza and
Porfirio Díaz
–The Mexican forces victorious in la batalla de Puebla (the battle of Puebla) and drove
the French out
–After the defeat, however, France immediately sent 30K troops to Mexico  the French
took Puebla and marched towards Mexico City
•Juárez left the capital and moved the Mexican government north
The French Empire in Mexico
June 12, 1862 the French Empire was officially declared in Mexico  the second
empire in Mexico greatly pleased Mexican conservatives
•Napoleon III named the Austrian archduke Maximilian of Hapsburg as the Emperor of
Mexico
The French Empire
•As emperor, Maximilian, and his wife Charlotte (Carlota in Spanish), held Mexico in
high regard:
“I [Maximilian] found the country [Mexico] far better than I expected… and the
people far more advanced than supposed at home. Our reception was cordial and sincere,
free from all pretence and from that nauseating official servility which one very often
finds in Europe on such occasions. The country is very beautiful, tropically luxuriant in
the coast lands… The so-called entertainments of Europe, such as evening receptions, the
gossip of teaparties, etc., etc., of hideous memories, are quite unknown here, and we shall
take good care not to introduce them.” (Maximilian writing to his younger brother about
Mexico)
The French Empire
•During their reign in Mexico, the French monarchs Maximilian and Carlota resided in
the Chapultepec Castle
•Both Maximilian and Carlota made a concerted effort to connect with Mexico and its
people  they traveled throughout the country and interacted with the population
•In honor of his wife, Maximilian order the construction of an extensive avenue in
Mexico City, called La Calzada de la Emperatriz
Juárez and the Liberals
•After the French entered Mexico City in 1862, Juárez moved the Mexican government
north, initially to San Luis Potosí and then to the city of Paso del Norte in Chihuahua
(now known as Ciudad Juárez)
•From the north of Mexico, liberal forces engaged the French Empire in guerrilla
skirmishes  liberals were able to present effective resistance to the French Empire, but
they remained restricted to the north
•After 1865, the French Empire began to lose its grip on Mexico as Maximilian
supported and implemented liberal legislation that alienated conservatives in Mexico
•Juárez realized the vulnerability of the empire and searched for support
Liberal Mexico and the United States
•When the French initially invaded Mexico in 1862, Juárez appealed to president
Abraham Lincoln for United States support against France
•Unfortunately, Lincoln could not extend U.S. support to Mexico as the American Civil
War erupted in 1861  Lincoln’s government, however, verbally supported Juárez’s
liberal government and refused to recognize the legitimacy of the French Empire in
Mexico
•In 1866, after the conclusion of the American Civil War, the U.S. government gave its
support to Juárez and the liberals  the U.S. allowed Juárez entry into the U.S. to
purchase arms and to recruit troops; the U.S. also sent 50K soldiers to the Texas border at
the Rio Grande
Another Liberal Victory
•The support of the U.S. convinced French Emperor Napoleon III to withdraw his troops
from Mexico  Maximilian, however, refused to renounce his imperial throne
•On
1867, Maximilian led a final assault on Juárez’s liberal forces at Querétaro 
Maximilian defeated and captured by the liberals
•Maximilian was tried in a court martial and was sentenced to the death penalty
•On June 19, 1867, Maximilian was executed by firing squad on the Hill of the Bells in
Querétaro  restoration of the Mexican Republic
•In