Cultural Effects Theories : what the media do to people
-media is powerful
-audience is passive
The following theories we have studied are cultural effects theories-
Bullet/Hypodermic Needle theory and Agenda Setting theory
Reception Theories : what the audience does with the media
-media not powerful
-audience is active
The following theories we have studied are reception theories-
Uses and Gratification Theory and Joseph Klapper’s Reinforcement theory
Postmodern theory belongs to neither of the above categories. IT IS NOT a reception theory or a cultural effects theory. Post modern theories ‘sit on the fence’ in the middle.
1. BULLET /HYPODERMIC NEEDLE THEORY 1920s-1940s (cultural effects)
Originated in USA during 1920s and 1930s
Popular in the 1940s
Media very powerful
Media texts: CLOSED
Audience: PASSIVE
The media is highly influential and audiences are seen as ‘sponges that absorb the media without interference.
2. Uses and Gratification Theory: 1940s to 1960s (reception theory)
Media not powerful
Media texts: OPEN
Audience: Active
Originated in USA in 1940s
It’s what the people do with the media – rather than what the media does to people – that counts. The public uses the media to gratify desires – whether they desire entertainment, relaxation, information, etc.
-own choice of media, audience select and omit
3. Joseph Klapper’s Reinforcement Theory: 1970s (reception theory)
Media not powerful
Media texts: OPEN
Audience: Active
In Klapper’s opinion-audience doesn’t have as much power as family, peer group, etc.

According to this theory, the media is seen as having little power to shape public opinion.
Other factors (referred to as ‘socialising influences’) play a greater role in shaping people’s beliefs and attitudes such as the influence of family and peer groups, religion, social class, education, occupation, etc.
Sociologist Joseph Klapper basically agreed with the Uses and Gratification Theory in that the media is not seen as being all-powerful and that the meanings in texts are open to interpretation by the audience. However, Klapper’s theory differs in one important way:
Klapper considered a range of influences upon audiences, of which the media was only one.
Klapper argued that these socialising influences were responsible for a person’s beliefs and behaviour, and that the media can only play a role by ‘reinforcing’ these beliefs and attitudes. The audience will simply ignore messages that contradict their view of the world.
Klapper introduced a new concept to the media communication debate: he argued that the influence of the media can be much greater when the media explores issues that have not been talked about before. In these circumstances, there is no pre-existing value or belief in the audience. Only on these rare occasions can the media slightly influence the public for a short time, until other sources of influence in society become aware of the issue. At that point, Klapper argued, the network of social factors will again become the dominant influence shaping public opinion.
As a result of his research, Klapper generalised that mass communication cannot be considered in isolation but must be seen as an influence working amid other influences.
‘New’ media messages will eventually be adopted or rejected by more conventional influencing elements (such as peer group and family), which will then become the dominant factors in personal beliefs.
4. AGENDA SETTING THEORY 1970s (cultural effects theory)
Media is powerful
Media texts: CLOSED
Audience: PASSIVE
The media cannot tell us what to think but it can tell us what to think about.
This theory is defined as the process whereby the mass media determine what we think and talk about. In other words, the media can ‘set agendas’ or terms of reference of any discussion be it social, political or economical.
-“gatekeeping”
5. POST MODERN THEORY 1970s to today

Developed in France during the 1970s and 1980s. Postmodernism reflected the social values of the 1980s-every individual has his or her own way of reading a media product.
Everyone’s response is unique. Postmodernists argue:

There is no single meaning in the text itself.

The meaning of the text resides in the viewer
 Everyone’s opinion of a text is equally valid
 Can’t talk about a particular media product having a major influence over everybody because everyone has their own unique way of interpreting it.

There is no such thing as a dominant/preferred reading. Readings are more often negotiated or oppositional-audiences make their own meanings. (eg: watching
Australian Idol-the 24 joke-split screens and a clock-I laugh at it because it’s sending up “24”-my 6 year old has never seen 24 and so she makes meaning in a different way. Another example is Shrek2 when Puss in Boots is in Shrek’s jumper and is trying to get out-I laugh because it is a joke about Aliens-my 6 year old laughs because the cat looks funny.
Some examples of post modernist media influence theories:
Reception Analysis
Reception Theory was developed by Stuart Hall, British media theorist:
The meaning of the text lies somewhere between that framed or encoded by the producer of the text and that decoded by the audience. Meaning is negotiated by the audience and the audience either chooses to accept all or part of the meaning intended by the media producer. Alternatively the audience may set up an oppositional reading to the text.
Readings vary depending on the social and cultural background of the audience.
Media has neutral power
Texts are open
Audiences are active