Study Guide
Chapter 10: The Auditory System
Chapter summary
Speech perception is a search for meaning, which is based on the ability to discriminate and
identify acoustic/phonetic features of the speech waveform. Vowels and consonants are
perceived in terms of multiple acoustic cues which trade off with each other depending on
contextual conditions.
Lecture Outline
I. Perception of speech
A. Segmentation problem
B. Instrumental analysis of vowel and consonant perception
C. Perception of vowels and diphthongs D. Perception of consonants
E. The role of context in speech perception
Study Questions:
 What is meant by the term segmentation problem in relation to speech perception?
 Identify two theories that have been proposed to explain why the lack of consistent
formant values for particular vowels is not a problem for speakers. .
 Describe categorical perception, and explain its role in the recognition and
identification of consonants.
 How does coarticulation influence the perception of vowels and consonants?
 Compare the acoustic cues that are important in the perception of stops and
consonants.
 Explain the role of context in speech perception.
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What is pattern playback?
What are the types of speech processor strategies have been implemented with
cochlear implants (SPEAK, fixed channel, and MPEAK)
How are vowels distinguished (p 254-257)
How are consonants distinguished from vowels? (page 257)
What is categorical perception?
Variant and invariant cues
What is the role of context in speech perception (page 264)
Look at Fig 10.8, page 264, where is Fo, F1, F2, F3, main consonant area and sibilant
frequency area located?
Chapter 11: Clinical Application: Perceptual Problems in Hearing Impairment,
Language and Reading Disability, and Articulation Defects
Chapter summary
Individuals with hearing loss do not have access to the multiple acoustic cues used by
normally hearing speakers to identify phonemes. Listeners that are hearing impaired are
often able to discriminate vowels, but have problems in identifying consonants, particularly
fricatives.
Otitis media is the most common cause of conductive hearing loss. In addition, otitis media
can be considered to be a form of early sensory deprivation that has been linked to subtle
speech perception and linguistic problems.
Cochlear implants are becoming increasingly accepted as a viable means of enhancing the
speech recognition of individuals with severe and profound sensorineural hearing loss.
However, training in auditory discrimination using visual feedback is essential for cochlear
implant users to receive the greatest benefit from their device.
Children with language and/or reading disabilities may have a temporal processing problem
which hinders them from perceiving the phonemes of their language. On the other hand,
children with articulation problems may or may not have speech perception difficulties
related to their specific misarticulations.
Lecture and discussion outline
I. Perceptual problems in hearing loss
A. Vowel perception
B. Consonant perception
C. Cochlear implants
D. Otitis media
II. Perceptual problems in language and reading disability
III. Perceptual problems related to articulation
Study Questions:
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Vowel perception and hearing loss
Consonant perceptions and hearing loss
Why is the /s/ so important to hear?
Audibility and surapthreshold discriminability, SNR loss
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In phoneme recognition, young children assign most importance to this.
Spectral cues are often inaudible to a person with high frequency hearing loss because?
The difficulty that many people with hearing loss have in detecting the /s/ sound can be
particularly detrimental to the comprehension of speech because?
Place of production cues are conveyed on this formant transition.
Manner of production cues are conveyed on this formant transition.
This formant transition is more difficult to hear when there is a high frequency hearing
loss.
This type of production cannot be lipread but is audible in the low frequencies.
This type of production is more likely to be visible or lipread but is audible in the high
frequencies.
Children learn to produce phoneme contrasts and phoneme sequencing by?
Why do the /i/ and /u/ often present a problem for a speaker who is hearing impaired?
For children with a language learning problem, discrimination of small acoustic
difference is?
What is a temporal processing problem?
Children who misarticulate sounds generally…?
People with dyslexia …?
Why do persons with high frequency hearing loss have difficulty perceiving fricatives?
What is the role of synthetic speech continua in exploring perceptual processing in
different groups of speakers?
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Why do children with high frequency hearing loss confuse different vowel sounds?
What is frequency selectivity and how does this relate to hearing loss?
Define the following terms and explain their relationship to each other: audibility,
suprathreshold level, suprathreshold discriminability.
Discuss why a person with moderate to severe hearing loss who wears a hearing aid
might still have problems in perceiving fricatives.
Identify at least two reasons why training using visual feedback is important for cochlear
implant users.
Describe the relationship between otitis media and language function in children.
Explain how perceptual processing problems may be linked to morphological difficulties
in children with SLI.
Identify the possible link between perceptual processing problems and articulatory
function in young children.
Chapter 12: The Nervous System
Chapter summary
The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system which includes the brain and
spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system which includes the cranial and spinal nerves.
Neurons are the basic building blocks of the nervous system, and consist of cell body,
dendrites and an axon; glial cells perform many metabolic functions.
Neurons work through a complex electrochemical process by which an action pot~ntial is
generated and transmitted to other neurons at the synapse.
The brain is contained within the meninges, and is given buoyancy by the cerebrospinal fluid
which is manufactured in the ventricles and circulates around the brain and spinal cord. The
brain is divided into two hemispheres, connected by the corpus callosum. The cortex of the
brain is highly convoluted, and is divided into frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, and limbic
lobes.
Within the white matter of the cerebrum are several subcortical structures including the
basal nuclei, thalamus, and hypothalamus. The brainstem includes the midbrain, pons, and
medulla, which connects to the spinal cord; cranial nerves have their points of origin in
various regions of the brainstem. The cerebellum is an important structure for coordinating
different aspects of movement such as direction, force, and speed.
Motor control systems involved in speech production include the motor cortical areas, as
well as the upper and lower motor neurons; feedback and feedforward are important
components of motor control.
Lecture and discussion outline
I. Brain Tissue
A. Glial cells
B. Neurons
II. Neuronal Function
A. Resting membrane potential
B. Action potential
C. Excitatory/inhibitory post-synaptic potentials
D. Conduction velocity
III. Meninges
A. Dura mater
B. Arachnoid
C. Pia mster
D. Ventricles (not minengies)
IV. Functional Brain Anatomy
A. Cortex
B. Lobes
C. Cortical connections
D. Basal nuclei
E. Thalamus
F. Hypothalamus
G. Brainstem
H. Cerebellum
I. Spinal cord
V. Cranial Nerves
A. Trigeminal
B. Facial
C. Vestibulocochlear
D. Glossopharyngeal
E. Vagus
F. Hypoglossal
VI. Blood Supply
A. Circle of Willis
VII. Motor Control Systems Involved in Speech Production
A. Motor cortex
B. Upper and lower motor neurons
C. Direct and indirect systems
D. Motor units
VIII. Principles of Motor Control
A. Feedback
B. Feedforward
C. Efference copy
Study Questions:
 What are glial cells and why are they important?
 What is an axon? Dendrite? Bouton? Neurotransmitter?
 What types of neurons are there?
 What is a neuron?
 What is the role of the meninges?
 What is the role of the ventricles?
 What is the function of each of the cerebral lobes?
 Why is the corpus callosum important for speech and language?
 What is the function of the basal nuclei?
 What is the function of the thalamus?
 What is the function of the brainstem?
 What is the role of the cerebellum?
 What cranial nerve innervates most of the soft palate (velum)?
 What are the arteries that form the Circle of Willis?
 Why is the Circle of Willis important?
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What is the Circle of Willis?
Identify the cranial nerves that are most important for speech.
What is Feedback, Feedforward, Efference copy?
Chapter 13: Brain Function Measures
Chapter Summary
Current imaging techniques that depict brain structure include computerized
tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
Brain function can be imaged with functional MRI (fMRI), positron emission tomography
(PET), single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) and quantitative
electroencephalography (qEEG)
PET and SPECT studies demonstrate differences in neural function between people who
stutter and normally fluent speakers. PET studies have been used to identify Parkinson's
disease before the appearance of clinical symptoms, as well as to show the progression of
the disease.
The P300 potential has been used extensively in Alzheimer's disease as a marker of
cognitive function.
Lecture and discussion outline:
I. Techniques for Imaging Brain Structure
A. Computerized tomography
B. Magnetic resonance imaging
II. Techniques for Imaging Brain Function
A. Functional magnetic resonance imaging
B. Positron emission tomography
C. Single photon emission computed tomography
D. Electroencephalography and evoked potentials
III. Use of Brain Imaging Techniques in Communication Disorders
A. Stuttering
B. Parkinson's disease
C. Multiple sclerosis
D. Alzheimer's disease
Study Questions:
 What is computerized tomography?
 What is magnetic resonance imaging?
 What is functional magnetic resonance imaging?
 The measurement of the distribution of a radioactive tracer in a brain is used when?
 Which evoked potential is considered the index of mental alertness and cognitive
activity?
 Stuttering research shows?
 Research findings with Parkinson’s include?
 The MRI of brain structure in MS shows?
 P300 and Alzheimer’s shows?
 Current brain imaging techniques can be categorized as depicting brain structure or
brain function
 Functional MRI studies can help to diagnose Alzheimer's disease before the onset of
severe symptoms
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MRI has the advantage of distinguishing fine differences between grey and white matter,
cerebrospinal fluid, and vascular structures
PET scans are based on the fact that areas of the brain which are more active absorb
more of the radioactive tracer than those which are less active
PET provides finer resolution and therefore more detailed images of structures than MRI
Recent research has led to the hypothesis that an excessive amount of dopamine in the
nervous systems of some people who stutter results in a problem in motor control
PET and SPECT techniques have been helpful in detecting loss of neurotransmitter
function in individuals with Parkinson's disease
The N400 evoked potential signals an upcoming motor response
In multiple sclerosis the amount of loss of motor function corresponds to the degree of
the demyelinization
Describe the advantages and disadvantages of computerized tomography and magnetic
resonance imaging.
Explain the principles of functional magnetic resonance imaging.
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Chapter 14: Models and Theories of Speech Production and Perception
Chapter summary
A theory is a statement about a particular phenomenon, incorporating underlying principles,
facts and assumptions. Theories change based on incoming research, and often have an
impact on clinical practice.
A model is a simplification of a system which can be manipulated in a controlled manner.
Models can be mechanical, physiological, mathematical, or computer based.
Speech production theories attempt to account for serial order, degree of freedom, context
sensitivity, and other issues. Numerous theories of speech production have been proposed,
including target models, feedback and feedforward models, dynamic systems models,
connectionist models, and others.
Speech perception theories attempt to account for linearity, segmentation, speaker
normalization, basic unit of perception, specialization of speech perception, and other
issues. Theories of speech perception can be categorized as active versus passive, bottom
up versus top down, and autonomous versus interactive. Most theories of perception focus
on acoustic-phonetic or phonemic aspects, including motor theory, acoustic invariance
theory, direct realism, fuzzy logical models, and connectionist theories; recent theories also
attempt to explain word recognition, including logogen theory and cohort theory.
Lecture and discussion outline
I. Differences between theories and models
A. Theories
B. Models
II. Speech production
A. Serial-order issue
B. Degrees of freedom
C. Context sensitivity problem
III. Theories of speech production
A. Target models
B. Feedback and feedforward models
C. Dynamic systems models
D. Connectionist models
IV. Speech perception
A. Linearity and segmentation
B. Speaker normalization
C. Basic unit of perception
D. Specialization of speech perception
V. Categories of speech perception theories
A. Active versus passive
B. Bottom-up versus top-down
C. Autonomous versus interactive
VI. Theories of speech perception
A. Motor theory
B. Acoustic invariance theory
C. Direct realism
D. TRACE model
E. logogen theory
F. Cohort theory
G. Fuzzy logical model of perception
H. Native language magnet theory
Study Questions:
 A theory is a way of interpreting facts by simplifying a system or any of its parts
 Theories are always subject to change because they are based on ongoing research
 Mechanical, physiological, and mathematical models are often used to test theories.
 Connectionist models propose that muscles work in coordinated synergies to achieve
speech production goals
 Acoustic invariance theory is based on a template of acoustic features against which a
listener compares incoming sounds
 Explain the difference between a model and a theory.
 Identify three types of models and give an example of each that is not described in the
chapter.
 Describe two of the issues in speech production and two in speech perception that
theories attempt to take into account.
 Discuss the critical elements in target models of speech production.
 Compare and contrast connectionist models and dynamic systems models of speech
production.
 Identify two reasons why feedback models cannot adequately account for speech
production.