STUDY GUIDE—PSB 3002
HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION
Neolithic humans (cranial surgery—trephinations)
Hippocrates (brain for intellect)
Aristotle (heart for intellect, brain to cool blood)
Galen (sensory vs. motor nerves; sensory & motor parts of brain)
da Vinci (drawings of brain, including ventricular system)
Vesalius (anatomy, including nervous system)
Harvey (physiology, including circulatory system)
Descartes (first mechanism by which brain produces movement)
Haller (disproved Descartes hypothesis)
Bell and Magendie (Bell-Magendie law)
Muller (Law of specific nerve energies, Labelled line theory)
Gall (phrenology)
Broca (localization of language in brain-damaged patient)
Flourens (first experimental brain damage; studied localization of function)
Lashley (localization of function; Law of Mass Action & Law of Equipotentiality)
Galvani (animal electricity in frog's leg)
Volta (nerves respond to electrical stimulation)
Helmholtz (speed of conduction)
Golgi (Golgi stain; reticular theory)
Cajal (neuron doctrine)
Sherrington (synapse; mechanism of reflex)
Bernard (curare; suggested chemical messengers in blood)
Dale (suggested acetylcholine acts as neurotransmitter on frog's heart)
Loewe (showed that acetylcholine is, in fact, released from nerve innervating frog's heart)
Hebb (Hebbian synapses; synaptic mechanism of learning)
CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
neuron
bilipid membrane or phospholipid bilayer
soma
dendrite, dendritic arbor or tree
axon
axon hillock
axon collateral
synapse
presynaptic terminal arbor
synaptic boutons, buttons, or knobs
synaptic vesicles
neurotransmitter
synaptic cleft
presynaptic terminal arbor
terminal bouton, button or knob
synaptosome
processes
unipolar neuron
bipolar neuron
multipolar neuron
sensory neuron
motoneuron
interneuron
local neuron (Golgi type I)
projection neuron (Golgi type II)
excitatory neuron
inhibitory neuron
central nervous system
peripheral nervous system
glia
astrocytes
microglia
oligodendroglia
Schwann cells
myelin sheath
functions of neurons
reception and integration of inputs
generation of action potential
conduction of action potential
synaptic transmission
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NEURON
membrane potential
resting potential
electrolyte
anions
cations
concentration gradient (osmotic pressure)
electrical gradient (electrostatic pressure)
selective permeability
dynamic equilibrium
excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
depolarization
inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
hyperpolarization
ions and ion channels, channel proteins
leak channels
chemical-sensitive or chemically gated channels
voltage-sensitive or voltage-gated channels
Nernst equation
equilibrium potential
threshold
subthreshold
suprathreshold
graded potential
temporal summation
spatial summation
chloride and potassium inhibition
cable conduction, cable properties
membrane and internal resistance
action potential or spike
rising and falling phases
repolarization
undershoot
refractory period
propagation of action potential
sodium and potassium currents
sodium-potassium pump
closed, open and inactivated sodium channels
absolute refractory period (inactivated Na+ channels)
relative refractory period (hyperpolarization or undershoot)
nodes of Ranvier
saltatory conduction
synaptic transmission
Ca2+ - dependent neurotransmitter release
quantal release of neurotransmitter
exocytosis
pinocytosis
ligand
binding site
SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION
ionotropic synapse
nicotinic synapse
neuromuscular junction
metabotropic synapse
second messenger systems
G-protein
guanosine diphosphate (GDP)
guanosine triphosphate (GTP)
second messenger
adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
cyclic AMP (cAMP)
adenylyl cyclase
protein kinase
phosphorylation
electrical synapses
gap junctions
autoreceptors
presynaptic inhibition and facilitation
GROSS NEUROANATOMY
central nervous system
brain andspinal cord
peripheral nervous system
dorsal root ganglia
motoneuron axons
enteric nervous system
autonomic nervous system
neuraxis
rostral, caudal
dorsal, ventral
medial, lateral
anterior, posterior
superior, inferior
afferent, efferent
proximal, distal
ipsilateral, contralateral
coronal, frontal, transverse
horizontal
sagittal
SPINAL CORD
spinal column (spine; vertebral column)
segment, segmental organization
vertebra
vertebral canal
dorsal root
ventral root
spinal nerve
mixed nerve
somatic motor neurons
somatic sensory neurons
final common pathway
primary afferents
gray matter
white matter
dorsal horn
ventral horn
intermediate gray (lateral horn)
ganglion
dorsal root ganglion
reflex arc--withdrawal reflex
bundle, pathway, tract, funiculus
ascending pathways, descending pathways
"slipped" disk, herniated disk, ruptured disk
cauda equina
spinal tap or lumbar puncture
decussation
oblique
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
sympathetic & parasympathetic divisions
sympathetic ganglia & sympathetic chain
cranial and sacral divisions of parasympathetic system
pre- and postganglionic cells and fibers
BRAIN
prosencephalon, mesencephalon, rhombencephalon
nucleus
hindbrain
medulla (medulla oblongata)
pons
cerebellum
midbrain
tectum (corpora quadrigemina)
inferior colliculi & superior colliculi (optic tectum)
tegmentum
substantia nigra
red nucleus
reticular formation
forebrain
diencephalon
hypothalamus
thalamus
massa intermedia
relay nuclei and association nuclei
frontal lobotomies
telencephalon
basal ganglia
corpus striatum
lenticular nuclei
caudate, putamen, globus pallidus
nigrostriatal pathway
Parkinson's disease and Huntington's chorea
limbic system
hippocampus, septum, amygdala
mamillary bodies
fornix
cerebral cortex
occipital, temporal, parietal and frontal lobes
visual cortex, auditory cortex, motor cortex, somatosensory cortex
cranial nerves-name, number
convolutions
sulcus (sulci)
gyrus (gyri)
fissures
lateral sulcus
central sulcus
corpus callosum
central canal
ventricles
fourth, third, lateral
aqueduct of Sylvius (cerebral aqueduct)
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
choroid plexus
blood-brain barrier
tight junctions
meninges
pia mater, dura mater, arachnoid
arachnoid granulations
proliferative zone or periventricular layer
radial glia
neuron migration
NEUROPHARMACOLOGY
six criteria for identifying a neurotransmitter
precursors
enzymes
life history of a neurotransmitter
Dale's law
inactivation of neurotransmitter
reuptake
degradation
diffusion
agonists
antagonists
acetylcholine (ACh)
neuromuscular junction
synthesis of ACh
choline
acetyl coenzyme A
inactivation of ACh
acetylcholinesterase
muscarinic receptors
nicotinic receptors
Alzheimer's disease
nucleus basalis, or basal nucleus of Meynert
black widow spider venom
botulinum toxin
atropine
curare
anticholinesterases
catecholamines (CA)
dopamine (DA)
norepinephrine (NE)
synthesis of CA's
tyrosine
tyrosine hydroxylase
DOPA decarboxylase (or aromatic l-amino acid decarboxylase)
dopamine B-hydroxylase
inactivation of CA's--mechanisms
monoamine oxidase (MAO)
catecholamine theory of mood
tricyclic antidepressants
MAO inhibitors
amphetamine
cocaine
CA theory of mood
DA theory of schizophrenia
Parkinson's disease
tardive dyskinesia
mesolimbic dopamine system; nigrostriatal pathway
serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT)
synthesis of 5-HT
tryptophan
tryptophan-5 hydroxylase
5-hydroxytryptophan
inactivation of 5-HT--mechanisms
fluoxetine (Prozac, Xanax as SSRIs)
bulimia
obsessive-compulsive disorder
lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)
psilocybin
mescaline
bufotenine
histamine
excitatory amino acid transmitters
glutamate
receptor subtypes
n-methyl d-aspartate (NMDA)
kainate,
quisqualate (aka, alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxasole-proprionic acid; AMPA)
excitotoxins
inhibitory amino acid transmitter
gamma amino butyric acid (GABA)
GABAA and GABAB receptors
glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD)
benzodiazepines (minor tranquilizers; anxiolytics; Librium; Valium)
alcohol
tetanus toxin
peptide neurotransmitters
neuromodulators
substance P
gut hormones
hormone releasing factors
opiates, opioids
endorphins, enkephalins
exercise-induced euphoria ("runner's high")
naloxone
colocalization of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators
nitric oxide (NO)
synthesis of NO
arginine
nitric oxide synthase
citrulline
carbon monoxide (CO)
synthesis of CO
heme
heme oxygenase
biliverdin
tolerance
metabolic tolerance
up- and down-regulation of receptors
neuro-behavioral compensation
addiction
acute withdrawal
post-acute withdrawal
psychological dependence
craving
nucleus accumbens
prefrontal cortex
treatment of addiction
detox, rehab, continued therapy
tetrodotoxin (TTX)
puffer fish
batrachotoxin (BTX)
tetraethylammonium (TEA)
SENSORY SYSTEMS
five basic senses
proximal senses
distal senses
acoustic and vestibular divisions of auditory system
cutaneous and proprioceptive divisions of somatosensory system
exteroceptive systems
interoceptive systems
VISUAL SYSTEM
iris
pupil
iris dilators and sphincters
cornea
lens
ciliary ligaments, zonules or zonule fibers
ciliary muscles
fovea
optic disk (blind spot)
retina
choroid layer, or pigmented epithelium
tapetum
photoreceptors (rods and cones)
neurons of the retina (horizontal, bipolar, amacrine and ganglion cells)
photopigments
rhodopsin (visual purple)
iodopsin
11-cis retinal
all-trans retinal
opsin
dark current
signal detection and signal-to-noise ratio
photoreceptor (rod) sensitivity
receptor potentials or generator potentials (graded potentials of receptors)
receptive field
center and surround
lateral inhibition
direct pathway
indirect pathway
Exam 2
convergence
divergence
visual pathways
cranial nerve II (optic nerve)
retinogeniculostriate system
retinotectal system
retinotopic organization
feature detectors, feature detection
simple cortical cells
complex cortical cells
"grandmother cells"
cortical orientation columns
cortical ocular dominance columns
trichromatic theory of color perception
opponent process theory of color perception
cortical "blobs"
saccades
smooth pursuit, or visual tracking
vergence
jitter
nystagus
cranial nerves III, IV and VI
stabilized retinal images
binocular mechanisms of depth perception
vergence movements, ocular disparity or parallax
monocular mechanisms of depth perception
size, line convergence, relative height, occlusion, shading, contrast and color shift,
texture, motion parallax, etc.
AUDITORY SYSTEM
outer ear
pinna, auditory canal, tympanic membrane
middle ear
ossicles
malleus, incus, stapes
inner ear
cochlea
oval window
round window
perilymph
endolymph
scala vestibuli
scala media
scala tympani
Reissner's membrane
basilar membrane
tectorial membrane
inner hair cells
outer hair cells
organ of Corti
travelling wave
tonotopic organization
spiral ganglion (cochlear ganglion)
cochlear nerve (cranial nerve VIII, acoustic nerve)
cochlear nucleus
central acoustic pathways
cochlear nuclei, superior olivary complex, inferior colliculus, medial geniculate, cortex
lateral lemniscus
frequency locking
phase locking
cochlear microphonics
mechanisms of pitch perception
place theory
frequency theory
mechanisms of sound localization
differences in phase, time of arrival, intensity
spectral cues
estimating distance of sound source
echoes
intensity
shift in sound spectrum
VESTIBULAR SYSTEM
vestibule
semicircular canals
linear and angular acceleration (head tilt and head rotation)
ampulla
cupula
crista
hair cells
statocysts (saccule, utricle)
otoconia or otoliths
stereocilia
kinocilium
vestibular ganglion
cranial nerve VIII, vestibular nerve
central vestibular pathways
vestibular and visual nystagmus
vestibulo-ocular reflexes
cranial nerves III, IV, IV
post-rotary nystagmus
righting reflex
neck reflexes
cranial nerve XI
cochlear-vestibular nerve or auditory nerve (VIII)
Exam 3
SOMATOSENSORY SYSTEM
free nerve endings
Pacinian corpuscles
receptive fields
pain perception
lateral inhibition
two-point discrimination
central somatosensory pathways
lemniscal system
extralemniscal systems
paleospinothalamic pathway
neospinothalamic pathway
spinomesencephalic pathway
gate-control theory
opiates and pain control
referred pain
somatosensory cortex
homunculus
somatotopic organization
GUSTATION
taste buds
papillae
taste cells
microvillae
five "primary tastes", molecular characteristics, mechanisms of reception
cranial nerves VII, IX, X
gustatory pathways
OLFACTION
olfactory mucosa
olfactory receptors
Amoore's stereospecific theory of smell
cribiform plate
olfactory nerve (I)
cranial nerve V, free nerve endings
olfactory bulb
mitral cells
glomeruli
central olfactory pathways
olfactory areas in the brain
pheromones
role of olfaction in sex, territoriality and aggression
MOTOR SYSTEMS
actin
myosin
cross bridges
motor unit
extrafusal muscle fibers
intrafusal muscle fibers or muscle spindles
nuclear bag
annulospiral endings
muscle spindle afferents
alpha motoneurons
gamma motoneurons
monosynaptic stretch reflex
patellar tendon reflex
Golgi tendon organs
synergists and antagonists
flexors and extensors
degrees of freedom problem
reciprocal inhibition
crossed-extensor reflexes
oscillators
central pattern generators
motor programs
supplementary motor area
premotor area
mirror neurons
hierarchical motor control
spinal cord
brainstem
forebrain
motor homunculus
pyramidal motor system--anatomy and function
corticospinal tract
corticobulbar tract (cranial nerves V and VII)
extrapyramidal motor systems--anatomy and function
extrapyramidal feedback loops involving basal ganglia and cerebellum
substantia nigra
caudate putamen
globus pallidus, medial pallidum
ventral thalamus
pontine nuclei
pallidotomy
deep brain stimulation
red nucleus
rubrospinal tract
Parkinson's disease
Huntington's chorea
GABAergic neurons
cholinergic neurons
NEUROENDOCRINOLOGY
endocrine glands
exocrine glands
hormones vs. neurotransmitters
pituitary gland (hypophysis)
anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)
posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)
hypothalamic releasing hormones or factors
negative feedback loops (direct, indirect, short)
adenohypophysial hormones (direct- and indirect-acting)
neurohypophysial hormones
somatotrophin (growth hormone, GH)
growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)
somatostatin
prolactin
prolactin inhibitin factor
melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH)
thyrotrophin
thyrotrophin-releasing hormone (TRH)
thyroxine
cretinism
hypothyroidism
hyperthyroidism
corticotrophin (adrenocorticotrophic hormone, ACTH)
adrenal cortex
adrenal medulla
glucocorticoids
mineralocorticoids
cortisol
gonadotrophins
luteinizing hormone (LH)
follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH) or luteinizing hormone releasing hormone (LHRH)
androgens
estrogens
definitions of sex
sexual dimorphisms
organizational effects of sex hormones
activational effects of sex hormones
bipotentiality
masculinization
defeminization
alpha-fetoprotein
adrenogenital syndrome (congenital adrenal hyperplasia, CAH)
progestin-induced syndrome
androgen-insensitivity syndrome, testicular feminization
Imperato-McGinley's studies of Dominican Republicans
Benbow & Stanley's studies of gifted males and females
male-female differences in cognition
hormonal cyclicity and cognitive performance of women
interstitial nuclei of the hypothalamus and sexual orientation
LHRH secretion and sexual orientation
vasopressin
oxytocin