English 505
Rhetorical Theory
Session Eleven Notes
Goals/Objectives:
1) To begin to understand the significance of the Elocutionary Movement
2) To begin to understand the significance of the Belletristic Movement
3) To begin to understand the impact that the Epistemologists had on rhetoric
4) To begin to understand the influence that Science and Psychology have on rhetoric
Questions?
Which do you think is the better style for a speech: one which takes a conversational tone or one that takes a more formal
tone?
Questions/Main Ideas (Please
write these down as you think
of them)
The Enlightenment
At this point, two significant paths emerge in Western rhetoric:
1) an interest in style and delivery of rhetoric – the Elocutionary and Belletristic
Movements
2) an interest in science (in general) and psychology (in particular)- Epistemologists
The Enlightenment
The Elocutionary Movement
Had a single focus: the delivery of the spoken word
Influenced by Ramus’s distinction between rhetoric and logic
Most elocutionists focused specifically on delivery
The Enlightenment
Sought to teach that eloquent expression was achieved by:
Voice control
Bodily action that reflected a conversational pattern of delivery
The Enlightenment
Thomas Sheridan defined the movement thus: “elocution is the just and graceful
management of the voice, countenance, and gesture in speaking”
The Enlightenment
Two perspectives emerged within the movement:
1) Natural or conversational expression was to be desired
2) Delivery should be systematic so that certain rules should be used in speaking
The Enlightenment
Sheridan (A Course of Lectures on Elocution – 1762) taught that the speaker should appear
genuine and without the stylized, systematic mannerisms taught by the elocutionists from
the mechanical field
The Enlightenment
John Walker (Elements of Elocution – 1781) is often thought to be the champion of the
mechanical school
Walker’s version proved to be the most influential in the long run, flourishing into the 19th
and 20th centuries
The Enlightenment
At the basis of Sheridan’s theory was the (incorrect) idea that the practice of speaking is
based on the practice of reading
Usually when people read, he explained, they do so silently
The Enlightenment
When we read, we learn about only the types of sounds that are to be made and the pauses
Other aspects of delivery, including tone, accent, and gesture, are absent
The Enlightenment
“The most essential articles to a good delivery have been wholly left out of the graphic art”
A few key points:
1) Articulation
The Enlightenment
Good articulation is “giving every letter in every syllable, its due proportion of sound” and
“making such a distinction, between the syllables”
The Enlightenment
2) Pronunciation
The preferred dialect was that used in the courts
“All other dialects are sure marks, either of a provincial, rustic, pedantic, or mechanic
education; and therefore have some degree of disgrace annexed to them”
The Enlightenment
3) Accent
A speaker should be sure to sue the proper stress on the correct syllable in a word
4) Emphasis
The speaker must also stress the proper word in a sentence
The Enlightenment
Emphasis clarifies relationships in a sentence and allows the speaker to communicate the
rank of several words – by stressing the most important word
The Enlightenment
5) Pauses
The cessation of sound was necessary so that the speaker can take a breath and so that the
listener can understand what is said and see the distinctions between sentences and ideas
The Enlightenment
In other words, pauses are also used to give meaning to what is said
6) Tones - The sounds made by the speaker are tones and can communicate a variety of
expressions
The Enlightenment
Sorrow, lamentation, mirth, joy, etc.
The expression of these sounds “require neither study, art, nor imitation”
The Enlightenment
They break out “in the exactest expressions, nicely proportioned to the degree of his [the
speaker’s] inward emotions”
7) Gesture
The Enlightenment
Emphasizing the multi-sensory nature of speaking, Sheridan discusses hand gestures, facial
expressions, and other body movements
Effective gestures have force, which usually comes naturally
The Enlightenment
And grace, which can be learned through art
Eventually, much of what was taught by the elocutionists was thought to be artificial and
excessive
The Enlightenment
Despite criticisms, aspects of the elocutionary movement exist in teaching about public
speaking today
In other words, you’ll still find these ideas in Communications Departments
Questions?
Are people born with “taste” or is it something that can be learned?
Should we connect rhetoric to things like poetry and drama, or is that not the province of rhetoric?
The Enlightenment
The Belletristic Movement
Significantly expanded the scope of rhetoric, but maintained focus on style and delivery
The Enlightenment
In addition to focus on public speaking and sermons
Also focused on stylistic elements of belle letters (beautiful letters):
Art and literature
The Enlightenment
Main influences:
Aristotle’s Poetics
Isocrates’s Antidosis
Longinus’s On the Sublime
The movement is also credited with developing the practice of rhetorical criticism
The Enlightenment
Began to use rhetorical theory in a different way – to analyze and critique rhetorical
practice for its own sake
Rhetoric’s analytic function becomes more prominent
This obscures its generative function
The Enlightenment
Adherents used rhetoric to analyze and critique plays, sermons, and poetry
Instead of simply viewing rhetoric as a way to develop effective communication
The Enlightenment
Adam Smith and Hugh Blair are considered the most influential
Blair is considered the most representative of the movement
The Enlightenment
Blair selected and restated the teachings of writers like Aristotle, Longinus, Cicero, and
Quintilian
He then exemplified their theories by the use of passages from English writers
The Enlightenment
Taste
All people have some sense of taste – human nature
But not all people perceive taste in the same way – there are great inequalities
The Enlightenment
Taste could be improved with education
Two primary characteristics:
1) Delicacy – refers to the ability to see things in beauty that others may not see
Those with delicacy can derive pleasure
The Enlightenment
2) Correctness – refers to consistently using the proper standard when evaluating items
of beauty
Delicacy is an innate trait; correctness can be learned
The Enlightenment
There were several sources of pleasure:
Grandeur or sublimity – Blair saw these two terms as synonymous (thus differing from
Longinus)
The Enlightenment
Nature is a great source – tall mountains, thunder, roaring wind
Writing or speech that references mighty and forceful objects and that affects the
imagination achieves sublimity
The Enlightenment
In other words, sublime rhetoric discusses sublime objects or topics
The rhetor (or poet) him/herself must be deeply affected and warmed by the sublime idea
being expressed
An example:
The Enlightenment
“O wild West Wind, thou breath of Autumn’s being,
Thou, from whose unseen presence the leaves dead
Are driven, like ghosts from an enchanter fleeing,
The Enlightenment
Yellow, and black, and pale, and hectic red,
Pestilence-stricken multitudes: O thou,
Who chariotest to their dark wintry bed”
Who?
Percy Bysshe Shelley
The Enlightenment
Beauty, on the other hand, raises a calmer, more gentle emotion than the sublime
Emotions from the sublime are not long lasting, but emotions from beauty are of longer
continuance
The Enlightenment
“EARTH has not anything to show more fair:
Dull would he be of soul who could pass by
A sight so touching in its majesty:
This City now doth like a garment wear
The Enlightenment
The beauty of the morning; silent, bare,
Ships, towers, domes, theatres, and temples lie
Open unto the fields, and to the sky;
The Enlightenment
All bright and glittering in the smokeless air.
Never did sun more beautifully steep
In his first splendour valley, rock, or hill;
Ne'er saw I, never felt, a calm so deep!
The Enlightenment
The river glideth at his own sweet will:
Dear God! the very houses seem asleep;
And all that mighty heart is lying still!”
Who?
William Wordsworth
The Enlightenment
Other sources include novelty, imitation, melody, and harmony
Style
Language is the means through which a person expresses style
The Enlightenment
The style of the rhetor cannot be readily separated from his or her sentiments
Language is the means through which sentiments are expressed
The Enlightenment
Style has two qualities:
1) Perspicuity: using language in a way that clearly states the speaker’s ideas
Rhetoric must be obvious even to “negligent” listeners
The Enlightenment
Perspicuity has three qualities:
a) purity: using words which we speak and not importing from other languages
b) propriety: using the right word, or the specific word to communicate a specific idea
The Enlightenment
c) precision: get to the point
2) Ornament: is achieved through graceful, strong, melodious sentences or by figurative
language
It also has unity
The Enlightenment
Figurative language is more pleasing to the listener
Ways of creating effective style:
Rhetor should have knowledge about the subject
The Enlightenment
Rhetor should expose themselves to the best writers and speakers
(Please don’t take this literally!)
Rhetors should adapt their style to the situation and audience
The Enlightenment
Eloquence
Rhetoric, as defined by Blair, is comprised of a great variety of subjects, including drama,
literature and poetry
Thus, much of what he focused on was in written form
The Enlightenment
He does turn his attention to public speaking, or eloquence
He assumes that the speaker has knowledge of style and taste
Purpose is to persuade, inform, and amuse
The Enlightenment
Persuasion was the most important
Distinguishes between convincing and persuading
Convincing affects the understanding only
The Enlightenment
Persuasion affects the will and the practice
Involves the listener taking action on what is said
To persuade, a speaker must have passion
The Enlightenment
Blair notes that persuasion also requires freedom on the part of the listener to follow what
is said
The Enlightenment
Criticism
A way of evaluating beauty by using standards that have been established through
experience
Criticism should be formal and systematic
The Enlightenment
Blair uses criticism to illustrate and further explore the points made in his discussion of
taste, style, and eloquence
He also uses criticism for its own sake to investigate matters such as poetry & drama
The Enlightenment
Obviously, you’ll still find these ideas in English Departments today
At least in spirit, if not in detail
The Epistemologists
Developed approaches to rhetorical theory based on science and argumentation
Developed ways of thinking about psychology and reason
Put their faith in these theories to explain humanity and rhetoric
The Epistemologists
Generally called Epistemologists because:
They used scientific methods of induction
Believed that experience was necessary to build knowledge
The Epistemologists
Golden and Corbett (1968): “The more they studied ancient science, philosophy, and
rhetoric, they more they realized man’s lack of meaningful insight concerning his basic
nature”
The Epistemologists
Humans were developing more sophisticated scientific equipment, such as the telescope
They refined methods of research to be more systematic and generalizable
The Epistemologists
Coupled with this surge in scientific thinking and discovery was the diminished power of
The Church
As this influence waned, science became a more significant factor in determining what was
considered knowledge and truth
The Epistemologists
Copernicus discovered that the earth revolved around the sun, instead of the opposite, which
had been the prevailing belief at the time
Additionally, the printing press enables large populations to read/form their own
interpretations
The Epistemologists
Psychology and Rhetoric
Francis Bacon and John Locke
Both theorists saw the human mind as being composed of two essential categories:
The understanding
The will
The Epistemologists
To make this distinction: think of a time when you have been convinced of something, but
have not acted on it
For example: joined a gym, but failed to actually use your membership
The Epistemologists
In this case, you understood that you should do something (exercise), but did not have the
will to act on it (shame on you!)
Both Bacon and Locke saw understanding and will as the key to explaining human
knowledge and action
The Epistemologists
Bacon provides the key definition of rhetoric for the Epis:
“The duty and office of rhetoric is to apply reason to imagination for the better moving of
the will”
The Epistemologists
For Bacon, rhetoric has to use both creative appeals to the will, along with appeals to
understanding
It isn’t enough to convince someone of something
You also have to move them to take action
The Epistemologists
Rhetoric alone was capable of achieving those goals
Perhaps the most significant contribution of the Epis was the attack on the syllogism
The syllogism, they argued, did not allow humans to gain new information
The Epistemologists
Instead, the syllogism simply recognized what was already known to be true
Recall:
All people are mortal
Socrates is a person
Socrates is mortal
The Epistemologists
The Epis would contend that this syllogism doesn’t reveal or find any new information,
since all of these statements were previously known to be true
The use of induction, on the other hand, allowed humans to gather experience and
information
The Epistemologists
This would allow them to gain new knowledge
Consider:
Ships disappear when sailing into the horizon (specific case)
The shape cast on the moon during an eclipse is a circle (specific case)
The Epistemologists
When traveling north or south, new stars appear on the horizon (specific case)
The Earth is a sphere; it is not flat (conclusion)
In this example, new knowledge is created based on the observations of specific cases
The Epistemologists
Inductive reasoning follows the scientific approach and was thought to build knowledge in a
way that deductive reasoning and the syllogism could not
The Epistemologists
The Epis also sought to replace the heavily decorated style with one that was clear and
simple
They desired that humans have a clear view of reality that was not obscured by needlessly
elegant language
The Epistemologists
Scientific and medical journals today still use this simple, direct style in order to clearly
communicate with the reader
Summary/Minute Paper: