THE WORLD WIDE WEB AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING
The World Wide Web probably represents the most highly publicized and
captivating technological innovation of recent times. The international scope of the
technology alone instantly appeals to language teachers, who are showing a rapidly
growing interest in exploring its pedagogical possibilities. In this perspective, the Web can
be considered as a teacher-centered source of information and as a student-centered
medium of language instruction.
The World Wide Web is but one component of the Internet, a set of communication
resources (such as e-mail) accessible over telephone lines. It is an interlinked mesh of
"pages" or "sites" created by private individuals or organizations. The text of a Web page
contains invisible codes (HyperText Mark-up Language, or HTML) that are readable by
any computer and that help standardize Web page formatting. HTML permits authors to
easily insert mouse-clickable "links" to other points on the page or to other Web pages. It
also allows embedding of graphics, sound and video into a Web page. Users access the
Web through the Internet via software called a "web browser" (such as Netscape). The
browser screen has space for entering the address, or URL (Universal Resource Locator) of
the site to visit. A Web URL is a string of characters beginning with http:// followed by
directory path information.
For a language teacher, the Web is a vast, searchable library of information
exploitable for classroom as well as personal or professional use, and it offers several types
of content of immediate interest to language teachers. For example, news and magazines
articles have always been useful in language instruction as a source of authentic reading
and up-to-date regional and cultural information. Traditionally, teachers have been
limited by the cost and availability of print media sources. However, large numbers of
periodicals have now gone online, and many offer some or all of their content to the reader
without requiring a subscription fee.
Furthermore, an ever increasing number of sites promote use of the Web for
interactive language instruction. We can find online a variety of innovative Web
applications focused on both language content (grammar and vocabulary), skills
(listening, speaking, reading and writing), and cultural information. In this perspective, an
evident use of the Web is as a source of authentic texts for students. One Web-based
teacher strategy is to prepare a page with a reading text and a series of questions using
various HTML "forms" (fill-in-the-blank, multiple-choice or short-text response items) to
test student comprehension.
It is therefore clear that the Web promises to be an important resource for language
teachers. It provides teachers with ready access to a world of information enabling them to
easily make classroom teaching more content based; the content can be timely, authentic,
culture rich and, consequently, more engaging for students.
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THE INTERNET AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE EDUCATION:
BENEFITS AND CHALLENGES
Introduction
Over the past few years, the Internet has emerged as a prominent new technology.
The influence of such a powerful technological tool has pervaded all aspects of the
educational, business, and economic sectors of our world. Regardless of one's familiarity
with the Internet, it is repeatedly made reference to. News broadcasters and commercials,
for example, will now provide web addresses, and even the recent movie, "The Net" was
sparked by the impact of this new technology (Mike, 1996). Regardless of whether one
uses the Internet or not, one must be clear about the fact that the we have entered a new
information age and the Internet is here to stay.
Because the use of the Internet is widespread in numerous fields and domains,
without a doubt, it also carries great potential for educational use, specifically second and
foreign language education. This paper will therefore focus on the following questions: 1)
What is the Internet? 2) How can various facets of the Internet be used in the second and
foreign language classroom? 3) What are the benefits of employing the Internet in such a
setting? 4) What are the disadvantages or obstacles the Internet presents in a second
language classroom? Lastly, the implications of using the Internet in second language
classrooms will be discussed. The Internet is the latest in a series of technological
innovations for second language education. In order to understand the role of the Internet,
it would be useful to provide a brief history of technology and language teaching, present
a survey of the technological resources available to second language learners, and, finally
consider the role of the Internet and its possibilities.
Technology and Foreign Language Education: A Brief History
Technology and foreign language education are no stranger to one another. In the
sixties and seventies, language laboratories were being installed in numerous educational
settings. The traditional language laboratory was comprised of a series of booths, each
providing a cassette deck, and accompanying microphone and headphone. Teachers
monitored their students' interactions by using a central control panel. The basic premise
behind this technology was that if verbal behavior was modeled, and then reinforced,
students would quickly learn the language in question. The language lab activities were
therefore grounded in a stimulus-response behavior pattern. The more drill practice the
students encountered, the faster they would learn the second language. While the
language laboratory was a positive step in linking technology and language education, it
was soon recognized that such activities were both tedious and boring for learners.
Furthermore, the amount of student-teacher interaction was minimal, and individualized
instruction was irrelevant. Besides the pedagogical deficiencies, the audio equipment was
cumbersome and prone to breakdown, and had only one function-to disseminate auditory
input. These factors put together led to a shift to the communicative approach to second
language education, namely, computer assisted language learning.
Microcomputers and quality CALL software provided yet another medium for
language learning. Its potential as both a teaching and learning tool are widely written
about in the educational literature. At present, there are a variety of computer applications
available including vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation tutors, spell checkers,
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electronic workbooks, writing and reading programs, as well as various authoring
packages to allow instructors to create their own exercises to supplement existing
language courses. In addition to the range of software available, CALL has also been
shown to increase learner motivation (Blake, 1987). Chun and Brandl (1992) also propose
that the interactive and multimedia capabilities of the computer make it an attractive
teaching/learning tool. Computers can provide immediate feedback to students and
students can work at an individualized pace. Software can be designed to include sound,
graphics, video, and animation. Moreover, information is presented in a non-linear
sequence enabling learners to select the exercises or concepts they wish to review.
Despite the advantages and widespread use of CALL, it continues to suffer from
criticisms for several reasons. Many believe that learning and practicing grammar rules of
a foreign language through fill-in-the-blank exercises, for example, does little to improve a
speaker's ability to produce grammatically appropriate utterances (Armstrong & YetterVassot, 1994). Others point out that CALL suffers from its rigidity in light of the
complexities of natural languages. For example, a program designed to provide drill
practice on French verb conjugation is useful for only that and nothing else. Recently,
however, we are beginning to see encouraging and promising results in the area of CALL
software development. Interactive video and programs which provide more authentic and
communicative task-based activities are being created, which are more in line with the
current theoretical and pedagogical views of learning.
What is the Internet?
While the computer is now used in some form or another in most language
classrooms, and is considered standard equipment, the Internet is also gradually being
introduced in the second language classroom as teachers become more familiar with it.
The Internet is a confederation of thousands of computers from various sectors of society
such as education, business, government and the military. It is a network of thousands of
computer networks (Lewis, 1994). Each individual system brings something different to
the whole (databases, library services, graphs, maps, electronic journals, etc), and the end
result is a vast accumulation of information. It is a worldwide network of computers that
interact on a standardized set of protocols which act independently of particular computer
operating systems, allowing for a variety of access methods to the Internet. For example,
the Internet can be accessed from an IBM computer in a student's home in Australia, or
from a Macintosh computer at a school in Canada. It can therefore be conceived of as the
equivalent of a telephone system for computers. It can be used to both exchange
information through electronic mail, newsgroups, listservs, professional on-line discussion
groups, and so forth, as well as to retrieve information on a variety of topics through the
World Wide Web.
The Internet and Electronic Mail
Although the Internet has been available to most people, only recently have
educators been realizing the potential the Internet can have in second and foreign
language classrooms. The following section will therefore consider some of these potential
benefits and advantages of incorporating such technology in language courses. The
Internet has been used by some language instructors in creative ways - one of these
innovations being use of electronic mail (e-mail), a specific feature of the Internet. Overall,
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e-mail can encourage students to use computers in realistic, authentic situations in order
to develop communicative, and thinking skills. E-mail is easy to use and even teachers
intimidated by computers can quickly become adept at using e-mail with their students.
Furthermore, even timid or inhibited students can benefit from the meaningful interaction
and communication e-mail makes possible. Kroonenberg (1995), for example, employed email in her ESL classes at Hong Kong International School. She relates her initial
experiences of working with two classes of ESL multinational students in grades 9-12, and
a homogeneous group of summer school students involving Cantonese-speaking 14 and
15 year olds. The Dragon Bulletin Board System (BBS) using the TELIX communications
software was established in order to allow students and teachers to send messages to each
other, as well as make public entries on discussion conferences.
During the initial stages, students were logged on the system and each student
created a password. Students were simply asked to write freely as in a dialogue journal.
Kroonenberg (1995) believes this allows students to become familiar with the system and
further allows their ideas to flow. Writing on e-mail can therefore be used to generate
ideas about a topic, or can enable learners to free-write without any impositions. E-mail
can also be used in various conference-type formats or to generate discussion. For
example, Kroonenberg often provided students with topics of high interest in order to
generate more writing. In fact, one student who was part of this project stated, "I usually
get involved in the BBS because the subjects are interesting and I have a lot to say about
them" (p. 25). Writing topics often involved school issues or issues that were directly
relevant to the students' lives. In other conference assignments, students are the main
audience. Students read entries and then respond to them via e-mail. This allows each
student to express their opinion. In this manner, all opinions are voiced and heard,
something which may not always occur in oral discussions in the classroom.
Chat rooms can also be carried out through e-mail. In this situation, two or more
individuals can "talk" on-line about various topics or issues. For instance, language
learners can be paired up and can be given a debatable topic to discuss. Such experiences,
once again stimulate authentic communication and assist students in developing specific
communication skills such as arguing, persuading, or defending a particular point.
Listservs from around the world can offer news and discussion groups in the target
language providing another source of authentic input and interaction. Cononelos and
Oliva (1993) organized e-mail exchanges between entire classes of students in order to
generate discussion, improve writing skills, and promote peer interaction. In this
particular project, advanced level Italian students employed e-mail newsgroups to
improve both their writing, as well as their knowledge of contemporary Italian society. In
this manner, the teaching of culture was also facilitated through the immediate feedback
and contact of L2 speakers who were interested in informing others about their culture.
E-mail can also be used to communicate long-distance with language learners in
other schools, or other countries for that matter. A study exploring the potential of longdistance communication involving second language learners was carried out by Chang
(1993). The goals of the study were to provide students with a real context for improving
their writing, help them to expand their ideas of "content-area" reading and functional
writing across cultural boundaries, make students familiar with international
telecommunications, and investigate with students, the potential effects of
telecommunications on literacy acquisition (Davis & Chang, 1994).
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The subjects involved in the study included undergraduate students at Taiwan's
National Kaohsiung Normal University (NKNU) and students at University of North
Carolina at Charlotte (UNCC). The 8-week teleconference began with Prompt 1 in which
students were asked to write letters to one another. In addition to personal introductions,
students were asked to include a focus on their previous English language learning
experiences and the difficulties associated with this. In Prompt 2 and 3, students were
asked to use their textbooks on the History of English Language to report on interesting
uses of English, (ie. connotations, spelling, etc). Prompts 4 and 5 asked the learners to
work with sections of specific texts to comment on pronoun and lexical use, as well as
syntactic structure. In the final prompt, both groups of students collected examples of
English slang and idioms used in each country's films and music. Questions pertaining to
the above were asked and responded to by students in each group.
Davis and Chang (1994) point out that as writers on both sides of the world shared
questions and comments, jokes began to surface. Over time, the students' reading and
writing began to change as well. Through surveys and informal case studies of student
writing during the conference, it was found that for the most part, students' writing had
improved in both fluency and organization. Surveys also indicated that students saw some
carry over to their study literature, and that they had a better understanding of English
usage. While the above examples illustrate a few uses of e-mail in the second and foreign
language classroom, without a doubt e-mail can provide authentic communication and
can foster awareness of both the language learner and the languages they are learning.
The Internet as a Teaching and Learning Tool
In addition to the communication benefits of the Internet, the Internet can also be
used to retrieve and access information. The World Wide Web is therefore a virtual library
at one's fingertips; it is a readily available world of information for the language learner.
While the Internet offers numerous benefits to the language learner, a few such
possibilities are examined here, in the context of language learning.
Perhaps one of the most essential pedagogical principles of language teaching is
one that emphasizes the study of language in a cultural context. I, along with many other
language instructors believe that language and culture are inextricable and
interdependent; Understanding the culture of the target language enhances understanding
of the language. To this end, the Internet is a valuable resource to both language teachers
and learners. As discussed previously, e-mail on the Internet allows language learners to
communicate with native speakers. In this manner, the Internet facilitates the use of the
specific language in an authentic setting. The Internet can also be used to acquire
information from language resources for a variety of purposes. For example, students can
access current information from countries around the world. They can obtain
geographical, historical, social/cultural, economic, and political information from the
countries in which the target language is spoken. Students can read web versions of daily
newspapers and same-day news reports from sources such as the French Embassy's
gopher service, the daily Revue de Press (Armstrong and Yetter-Vassot, 1994). Such
experiences can allow learners to participate in the culture of the target language, which in
turn can enable them to further learn how cultural background influences one's view of
the world.
The Internet also serves as a medium for experiencing and presenting creative
works. While students can peruse the information on the Net, they can also use it as a
5
platform for their own work such as essays, poetry, or stories. Numerous public schools,
for example, are making use of the World Wide Web for publishing student work which
can be accessed by other web users. Students therefore become not only consumers of
content, but in fact generate the content.
As Mike (1996) describes, the use of the Internet has also been shown to promote
higher order thinking skills. A language teacher, for example, may instruct learners to
search for specific information. Searching the Web requires logic skills. Once information
has been obtained, the results must be reviewed which requires scanning, discarding, and
evaluative judgment on part of the learner. The information must be put together to make
a complete and coherent whole which entails the synthesis process. Such an endeavor
permits students to practice reading skills and strategies. The Internet also promotes
literacy for authentic purposes, as stated previously. In addition to being a supplement to
reading materials, especially current information, when students are exploring the Net,
they are essentially exploring the real world. Such browsing or exploration can also lead to
incidental learning as they encounter a variety of information in this way. Communication
with native speakers furthers literacy development for authentic purposes, enables
language learners to compare student perspectives on an issue, and allows them to
practice specific skills such as negotiating, persuading, clarifying meaning, requesting
information, and engaging in true-life, authentic discussion. Promotion of literacy also
occurs within a social context. The interaction that results from the above situations can
lead to cooperative projects and increased communication between students from all over
the world, in turn leading to the development of social skills. Finally, use of the Internet
can promote computer skills and the technical and conceptual experiences of using a
computer.
Lastly, the Internet provides supplemental language activities which can provide
students with additional practice in specific areas of language learning. These include
reading tests and comprehension questions, grammar exercises, pronunciation exercises
possible through the available multimedia capabilities, cloze tests, vocabulary exercises,
and so forth. Students can search the Web for such sites, or teachers may recommend
specific sites on the Web. Published lists are also available from various sources. For
example, Paramskas (1993) offers a list of sites for both language teachers and language
learners, some of which relate to issues of language learning, others which use language as
a medium for discussion of culture or current affairs, and others which assist in locating
native speakers.
The Internet Challenges
Up to this point in time, the above discussion has described some of the potential
benefits of the Internet and how it can be used in the second or foreign language
classroom. However, such a discussion would be incomplete without addressing the
disadvantages or obstacles related to the use of the Internet in the language classroom.
While the Internet and its various facets offer a great deal to the language learner, it is not
without its problems. The nature of the Internet itself can be a disadvantage at times.
When lines are busy due to many users, it may take time to access information or browse
the Net and technical glitches themselves can lead to frustration. Lack of training and
familiarity on part of the teachers can make it difficult to implement the Internet in the
language classroom. This requires that school administrators budget for training in this
6
area. Foreign language teachers are especially anxiety prone to computers since they often
have little experience with computers. For the most part, computers in schools are used for
business or computer science courses. Costs related to training, as well as on-line costs of
using a provider are issues that may interfere with implementing such a technology in
schools, especially in schools that have little funding. Censorship may also be a concern to
language programs and instructors. The Internet offers access to all types of issues and
topics, some of which are unsuitable for children, and this in itself may result in various
problems. While some precautions can be taken at the present time, they are not full proof
by any means. Equity issues may also present difficulties when attempting to implement
such technology in the classroom. As the commercial sector begins to assume a more
prominent role in the Internet's infrastructure, rural and inner-city schools, already hardpressed to provide Internet access, may find it less affordable. This is certainly
discouraging for both language teachers and students in such educational settings (Mike,
1996). Many institutions such as these may also not have the computers or computing
facilities necessary to implement such type of technology.
Implications and Conclusion
Despite these limitations and obstacles, it must be realized that the Internet's
educational potential is immense. Although electronic, the Internet is an entity related to
literacy - people still interact with it entirely through reading and writing. For this reason
alone, the Internet is a technology that will, without a doubt, have significant implications
for both teaching and learning. So what does this imply for language teachers and
learners? Teachers must become familiar with using the Internet and its various functions
such as e-mail. They must also learn how to use specific search tools in order to access
information, search for lesson plans, or material and ideas to supplement their lessons.
Lastly, language teachers must learn now to transfer files from Internet sites to their own
computer and vice versa. Obtaining information or literature on the Internet, either
through the Net itself, through books, or by attending workshops and courses will further
assist this process. To avoid facing the same difficulties or problems associated with use of
the Internet, teachers can ask students to keep track of problems that arise during use. In
essence, language teachers must take the plunge and approach the Internet as a learning
experience themselves. The more enthusiastic and more knowledgeable language teachers
are, the more successfully they can implement Internet in the language classroom. For the
language learner, the Internet offers a world of information available to students at the
touch of a button. While it must be recognized that the Internet cannot replace the
language classroom or the interaction between the language teacher and student, if offers
a vast amount of information and lends itself to communication possibilities that can
greatly enhance the language learning experience.
Certainly at this point in time, several questions need to be asked to guide future
research in this area. How can use of the Internet correspond to the communicative or
pedagogical goals of language teaching? How will the Internet and its related facets assist
language learners in functioning in the global community? What will the real impact of the
Internet in foreign language classrooms be? How can the Internet be used more effectively
along side the present language curriculum? While these questions have been examined to
some degree, researchers and language educators must further investigate and implement
this technology to provide others with guidelines in this area.
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Without a doubt we are in the center of a "monumental technological paradigm
shift, one which will eventually change the way that all instructors teach and the way
students learn" (Jensen, 1993). While technology should not take over the language
classroom, it must be embraced in order to allow educators to do those things which they
are unable to do themselves, or those which will improve what is currently being done in
the classroom. As we approach the next century, it is essential that we make informed
decisions about how the Internet can be successfully integrated into the language
classroom. If we as educators do not rise to the challenge - who will?
THE INTERNET: MAKING IT WORK IN THE ESL CLASSROOM
Introduction
This paper will attempt to address three important areas related to Internet second
language instruction. First of all, how can the Internet be used to motivate students in their
efforts to acquire English proficiency skills. Secondly, what are the learning outcomes that
use of the Internet can support. Lastly, I would like to look at some of the components of a
successful program of instruction which utilises the Internet.
Motivation and Outcomes
Motivation is always a key issue in the field of education. As instructors, we are all
naturally attempting to present a system of education that is intrinsically motivating
rather than one in which the motivation comes from outside influences. In other words,
we want to see our students develop interests in the subjects we are teaching that they will
pursue on their own, rather than because of outside pressures such as homework, tests
and the like. The use of the Internet in language education seems to fill, at least with many
students, the criterion of promoting this type of motivation.
Muehleisen (1997) outlines this quite clearly in stating that students are interested
in joining the Internet revolution for three reasons. On a very basic level, students see the
Internet as trendy and want to be a part of it, others are also drawn by the practical aspects
of job skills acquisition and on learning skills that will be useful in life. Whatever reasons
are at the root of this motivation, it is clear that a great many students in my experience
are excited about it.
After students become involved in a comprehensive English language program
which incorporates Internet use, students may experience further motivation on several
levels. One supportive and potentially motivating outcome of Internet use is that students
begin to realize that not only is the world connected together through the use of this
technology, but as the majority of information on the Internet is in English, they begin to
appreciate in more concrete terms the usefulness of acquiring ESL skills. Thus, English is
taken to a new level, no longer an interesting curiosity or hobby, it now takes on the
characteristic of a vital and important skill that will be useful later in life. (Muehleisen
1997) Internet use also offers a more practical real life language experience, providing
students with functional communicative experiences that serve the learners needs as well
as motivate them to use English in their daily lives.
From an instructor's standpoint, involving students in Internet usage also promotes
a variety of activities and learning outcomes which are desirable.
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First of all, as the Internet is primarily text driven, electronic discourse that students
will participate in tend to be lexically and syntactically more complex than oral discourse.
(Warschauer 1997) Students that are participating in email, discussion groups and the like
are going to be using a broader range of English that those who tend to focus mainly on
spoken or conversational English.
A positive outcome of this balance is the increased reading and writing skills that
are developed as a result of using the Internet effectively. (Peyton and Crandall 1995) I
once heard someone describe reading as a "receptive" language process. If that is so, then
it is also clear that writing is a "creative" language process closely linked to other language
processes and that the acquisition of one stimulates the other. Students who are taking the
time to respond to email and who offer opinions on discussion group pages are intimately
involved in this creative process and are as a result largely driving their own progress.
Singai (1997) further states "Although electronic, the Internet is entirely related to literacy.
People still interact with it through reading and writing."
This of course does not mean that there needs to be a shift away from conversation
skills acquisition but suggests a balance in the curriculum between reading/writing and
speaking/listening.
Trokeloshvilli and Jost (1997) add a few more positive student outcomes to this list
that are easily addressed in a well designed program. These include an improved level of
writing skills, a higher awareness or consciousness of the world around them, and active
communication. These are certainly excellent points as they cut to the heart of what many
instructors are trying to achieve.
The old adage that "practice makes perfect" is certainly applicable here. I once had a
college professor tell me that one learns to read by reading. Of course, this is an
oversimplification, but none the less it does follow that students who take the time to
write generally improve.
The idea that using the Internet as a way to achieve a higher awareness is perhaps a
strange statement on the surface to make, with all the odd sites and bizarre bits of
information on the web. It "can" be enlightening however if used carefully. This may well
require some active teacher participation to keep students on the right track but the fact
remains that the Internet is a truly wonderful place for learning about other cultures and
ways of thought.
Active communication and self expression are hallmarks of the Internet and once
brought into play can prove to be mentally stimulating for students. Active is indeed what
the web does best. Being able to enter a chat room with a person in Switzerland and with a
dozen people from all the corners of the globe, can be a very exciting experience. Students
must read, write, and think on the spot, offering their opinions and ideas in a common
pool of experience. These are certainly outcomes much to be appreciated.
Components of a Successful Program
Having looked at some of the outcomes that can be aided by this technology, what
are some of the elements of a well designed program of instruction?
Integration
First and foremost, it should be an integrated rather than an add-on part of the
overall English education program. It is clear that simply creating a pen pal connection is
9
not enough (Warshchauer and Whittaker, 1997). Teacher involvement and support is an
essential component of a good program. Bruce Roberts, coordinator of the Intercultural EMail Connections program states that "When the email classroom connection processes are
truly integrated into the ongoing structure of homework and classroom interaction, then
the results can be be educationally transforming." (in Warschauer 1995, pg 95)
Computer Competence
A second component of a good instructional regimen is the level of computer
instruction provided. Perhaps the single most important aspect of a web-integrated class is
computer competence. (Trokeloshvilli and Jost 1997) As they have found, and in this I
have had similar experiences, students do not always have the necessary computer skills
to manage the use of the Internet. Indeed, after taking my usual student survey this year, I
found that out of the 230 students I teach at two separate universities, only 3 possessed an
email address, and only 10 said that they were comfortable using a computer! Thus, first
and foremost, the instructor must be willing to spend a fair amount of in-class and out of
class time helping students acquire the basic computer skills that will make the Internet a
fun and rewarding part of their language education experience. If this is not addressed
properly, students will be quickly overwhelmed and frustrated by the complexity of
computer and Internet usage.
Active Teacher Involvement
A third part of the process is the active involvement of the teacher in guiding the
program. While the Internet may well be self motivating, (to us) teachers do need to
anticipate and offer the basic support to help students, particularly at the early stages. This
help may take the form of handouts that show in detail how to use a web browser or send
email, setting up a home page that the browser goes to by default and has links for
students to look at, or creating sites where students can post comments about subjects,
even a page that lists homework assignments and class information. All of these reinforce
the use of the Internet and help students who are not technologically adept at refining
these skills.
Things Which Can Be Done
There are a great number of ways in which the Internet can be used in a practical
way to promote the use of English. Easily the most popular of these is the "pen pal"
concept. There are a wide number of sources of pen pals on line. Again, an interested and
involved teacher can make this a comfortable and exciting activity for students interested
in participating. This may involve the teacher at least offering to correct letters for students
before they send them out or practical advice on subjects that may be suitable. Personally,
I have found that many students simply feel more comfortable participating when they are
assured of error free correspondance.
To promote the use of the Internet, I do often ask that they email the letters to me
first rather than type them or hand write them. For new students, this helps reinforce the
basic skills. As a rule, I print these and correct them on paper as I really do want them to
see the corrections I have made so that they can improve their writing ability. I do send an
email back when I am finished correcting it so that they can know when it is ready.
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On a more practical level, one activity that students really enjoy is to, in the early stages of
Internet use, surf the web and find sites that match their interests or hobbies. This in itself
is a motivating activity, but having the students then email the web address with a few
comments to the instructor reinforces email and writing skills as well. As students become
increasingly web savvy, projects that further stimulate their creative energies in English
can be planned and completed. These may include tasks such as creating their own class
home page or electronic magazine.
Activities such as class treasure hunts (see Muehleisen 97) or working with desktop
publishing programs can also involve them in projects that can be shared across the
Internet. Basic HTML authoring programs like Adobe PageMill allows students to focus
on the content, not the HTML code and offer many possibilities to novice computer users.
Certainly, having one's own page, is a very stimulating experience that will involve a
student in the language being studied and provides a very visual and obvious sign of
progress in second language acquisition.
Conclusion
The Internet and its use in ESL classes shows great potential. If we consider
carefully the students' needs and tailor an interactive and supportive environment that
integrates Internet activities such as e-mail and web browsing into the curriculum,
students will as a result find English a more important part of their lives and will be more
likely to use it in a self motivating life long way.
References
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Belisle, Ron (December 1996) E-mail Activities in the ESL Writing Class. The
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http://iteslj.org/Articles/Belisle-Email.html
Kimball Jack (February 1998) Thriving on Screen: Web-Authoring for L2
Instruction.
The
Internet
TESL
Journal
http://iteslj.org/Articles/Kimball-WebAuthoring.html
Mello, Vera (January 1998) Report on a Pen pal Project, and Tips for Penpal-Project
Success.
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Internet
TESL
Journal
http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Mello-Penpal.html
Muehleisen, Victoria (June 1997) Projects Using the Internet In College English
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The
Internet
TESL
Journal
http://iteslj.org/Lessons/Muehleisen-Projects.html
Singhal, Meena (June 1997) The Internet and Foreign Language Education: Benefits
and
Challenges.
The
Internet
TESL
Journal
http://iteslj.org/Articles/Singhal-Internet.html
Trokeloshvili, David A. Jost , Neal H. (August 1997) The Internet and Foreign
Language Instruction: Practice and Discussion. The Internet TESL Journal
http://iteslj.org/Articles/Trokeloshvili-Internet.html
Warschauer, Mark and Whittaker, P. Fawn. The Internet for English Teaching:
Guidelines for Teachers. TESL Reporter 30,1 (1997), pp. 27-33 T
http://iteslj.org/Articles/Warschauer-Internet.html
11
TEACHER'S TIPS: ONLINE GRAMMAR TEACHING AND LEARNING
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The access to a wide range of resources
The ease and speed of getting information to large numbers of
students
The attractive layout and graphics
The links to numerous other sites
The students getting feedback without teachers having to mark their
work
These may easily entice and attract teachers to the Internet (or Net) with its plethora
of resources and teaching materials. Not only is the amount of information accessible on
the Net extensive but the rate of growth of the Net since its inception has been
unbelievably rapid. Indeed, the Word Wide Web (or Web) with which the Net is most
commonly associated has itself grown since 1993 with the introduction of the graphical
web browser software. The number of pages on the Web has doubled on the average of
every 3 to 5 months since then. It is no wonder then that the growth of the Web is
regarded to be `unparalleled in the entire modern history of spoken and written
communication' (Maddux, 1996, p. 64).
Grammar Resources on the Net
The available resources for grammar on the Net can broadly be categorised into two
main types: information-based and teaching resources. These are sites which provide:
information on grammar items including lists of grammar items, Frequently Asked
Questions (FAQ) on correct grammatical usage, online grammar clinics/help
centres/forums inviting questions with responses assured and also explanations of
grammar rules with appropriate examples and teaching resources including lesson plans,
worksheets and activities, tasks or exercises.
I would like to focus on the second area, namely, the teaching resources or materials
available for grammar teaching and learning and share some pointers on the use of these
resources, in particular, for individualised instruction and independent learning by
students.
A careful selection and adaptation of available resources needs to be carried out in
order to ensure that students learn to put to appropriate use their understanding of
grammar to communicate meaningfully, appropriately and fluently. The onus is on
teachers to integrate the available resources into their present instructional programme.
The general approach and underlying principles shaping the nature of the content of sites
vary. There may be a structured series of individual, uncontextualised sentences in a
number of so-called grammar `quizzes' for easy and fast review or practice. These could
include multiple choice, matching, word ordering, changing word forms, classification,
fill-in-the-blank, sentence/clause/phrase manipulation, sentence completion and creation.
Other sites, however, offer tasks requiring more independent student research where the
responses are essentially student-generated. For instance, students have to search the Web
as a corpus for available data in where they collect and analyse examples of words or
phrases used in authentic communication.
The purpose of using the resources available is of central concern: whether for
remediation or as enrichment and extension activities. Ultimately, teachers need to
12
exercise discretion in the appropriate selection and adaptation of resources or materials so
as to maximise the potential of the resources on the Net. The resources should provide for
flexible, self-pacing opportunities in order to meet the specific needs and address
particular areas of weaknesses of students. The sites may provide for language tasks from
a range of competence levels and different entry points.
There is a need for teachers to select self-directed tasks and programmes that teach
students how to work independently, explore, discover and learn to make choices.
Increasingly as the new millenium approaches, there is a shift from meeting students'
needs in terms of `learning prescribed subject matter' to one of `learning to learn and
wider empowerment' (Hackbarth, 1996, p.255). The challenge is thus for us to empower
our students, not just to provide meaningless drills, nor to control them in their choice of
responses made. Only then can a greater ownership of classroom activities and
responsibility for students' own learning be developed.
The quality of feedback to responses given is crucial in determining the usefulness
of resources for independent learning. Feedback can be used to provide information to
learners about their performance to enable them to use the information to correct their
errors. On some sites, encouraging feedback and the necessary explanations to aid in
understanding are given if not almost immediately, at least transmitted within a few days
or so. There is sufficient support and guidance given in the form of elaboration and
appropriate examples to aid students in their understanding of the grammar item in focus.
However, in some sites, incorrect answers given may also not always have adequate
explanations to help students' understanding.
Students also need opportunities to sufficiently challenge them and to stimulate
their thinking skills as they engage in discovery activities which help them deduce
grammar rules through appropriate activities. The degree of challenge and difficulty level
of tasks from various sites differ markedly. The structured, isolated exercises are more
predictable, being repetitive in nature with a more limited range of variety and do not
necessarily challenge students to the same degree. The degree of interactivity provided by
the sites whereby students are led to explore and think through their choices in coming to
a decision is to be considered. Skills which develop students' thinking that include the
following: induction and deduction, classifying, abstraction and rationalisation and
justification are offered in some sites where opportunities for deduction, induction and
constructing support for responses are provided. We need to work towards providing
students the opportunity to discover and deduce grammar rules for themselves from the
guided tasks given with appropriate notes and comments.
The use of a range of stimuli from text, graphics and sound (where available) in
resources is to be carefully integrated in order to provide not only a variety of learning
experiences but also cater to a range of learning styles and approaches to language
learning. Some students require a visual stimulus in the form of graphic illustration which
may be present as a trigger or stimulus for response to the text. Others may prefer a
format of filling up tabular forms or in the form of a chart.
A knowledge of the linguistic terms and grammar rules alone does not necessarily
imply an ability in knowing how to use the language appropriately and effectively. Tasks
which merely engage students in scoring in purely structured tests or quizzes do not
necessarily help develop students' proficiency or ability in using language effectively and
appropriately in a communicative context . There is a need for materials or resources with
a certain degree of authenticity and realism that parallel as closely to real life as possible
13
the use of language. Sufficient contextual information and background material need to be
included.
There is a need to consider if the online resources merely test or teach students
grammar items. Not all sites consistently provide quick diagnosis and prompt feedback
given to responses. Related to the issue of teaching through providing an enjoyable and
worthwhile learning experience is the motivational factor that prompts the use of the
resource, namely, whether there is the `value addedness' of the material in helping
students acquire a better understanding and use of language as compared to existing print
and audio-visual resources.
Conclusion
The Net has broken down the walls of time and space, giving every individual the
ability to be a lifelong learner. We need, through teacher selectivity, monitoring, and
appropriate adaptability or modifications, to provide opportunities and sufficiently
prepare our students to work independently. Students, as research has shown, learn best
through exploration. We, as language teachers, must consider how to expand their space
and opportunities for learning. When students become actively engaged in discovering
information for themselves, they will be able to solve problems and learn on their own.
Then only can we say that we have effectively used information technology to expand and
enhance independent learning in our classrooms and made it an integral part of classroom
instruction.
FOREIGN LANGUAGE EDUCATION WITH MULTIMEDIA TECHNOLOGIES
With the influx of multimedia technologies, foreign language pedagogy began to
shift toward more discourse oriented, interdisciplinary, and contextual modes of
instruction. Because language studies are by nature encyclopaedic, the field has offered
prime opportunities for augmenting established educational techniques with interactive
technologies and methodologies.
The term "digital" itself already dramatizes how radically different the new
educational landscapes have become. The involved technologies are highly motivating,
convenient to use, and task oriented, which accounts for their broad appeal to both foreign
language teachers and learners. Most students appreciate the electronic media because
they help engage them with authentic materials in the form of texts, sounds, symbols,
images, and moving pictures. Likewise for many teachers, the increased use of multimedia
resources in foreign language programs prompted a revision of teaching styles and
techniques. With the introduction of electronic study tools, the established roles of
teachers and students began to shift quite rapidly toward more participatory and
communicative classroom models.
In the age of multimedia information and instruction, language teachers are able to
function more as motivators, mediators, and designers of tasks rather than mere
knowledge providers. Instead of emphasizing monologue-style presentations and lectures,
instructors can operate more as communicators or navigators to new educational domains,
and as expert guides to international repositories of knowledge. Computer-based
resources promote this shift away from teacher focused performances by providing
14
learners with quick and unrestricted access to course related materials. Digital
technologies support much more student focused environments which emphasize
synthetic learning over linear transfers of knowledge.
If there are common denominators among contemporary theories of foreign
language acquisition, they are embedded in the notions of "interactive" teaching and
"proficiency oriented" cross-cultural communication. Most current methodologies stress
learner centered approaches, emphasize affective components in the language acquisition
process, focus on communicative practices and the study of authentic materials from the
target culture. Within these realignments of foreign language pedagogy, meaningful new
approaches require that the presented information becomes contextualized, synthesized,
and that students discover relationships with other areas of the curriculum. Digital
domains such as the Internet, the World Wide Web, CD-ROM software, and multimedia
applications do exactly that. They immerse students in virtual realms where the pursuit of
foreign languages, literatures, and culture studies become interdisciplinary and learner
oriented tasks. Digital media, operating in such modes, permit applied explorations and
skill oriented training driven by student query instead of teacher directive.
THE INTERNET AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION: PRACTICE AND
DISCUSSION
Brief Chronology
The introduction of the Internet into the EFL classroom has brought about many
changes in the way instructors approach foreign language teaching. Perhaps the most
significant changes have occurred in writing instruction. In the early 90s, many writing
instructors moved their classes out of the traditional classroom into the computer room.
Instruction was based on computer skills and writing production, both receiving equal
emphasis.
Then e-mail was in the forefront with instructors setting up key pal connections;
emphasis was, thus, placed on authentic communication and the speed of production for
written text. The next area of interest was Intranet systems. Intranet systems provided
students with an opportunity to have written discussions with their fellow classmates, to
write on various topics, to state their opinions within a familiar framework, peers writing
to peers for the purpose of sharing and exchanging thoughts and ideas. In general, the
instructor served as a facilitator, monitor, and commentator--providing students with
relevant writing topics, making sure there is equal participation, and being a higher
authority on the issues discussed.
Presently, the production of home pages has gained immense popularity in foreign
language writing instruction. It allows for the integration of the many different facets of
computer technology--basic word processing: e-mail and key pals, Internet searches, and
Intranet communication projects--into the writing processes. And most importantly it
provides an opportunity for students to enjoy writing in English with the role of the
instructor being not only a facilitator and writing instructor, but also a web technician.
Needs and Goals
15
Essential to any web-based course is thoughtful consideration of student needs and
teacher goals. While the two often exit hierarchically, with student needs given less
consideration, a web-based course allows for more equality in teacher expectations and
student needs as student enthusiasm is naturally promoted by the technology and the
excitement of creating a personal home page. The following chart illustrates student needs
and teachers goals, and presents a model of what teachers might consider in planning a
web-based course:
Student Needs
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Need for writing practice.
Need for writing with a real purpose in mind.
Need for authentic audience.
Need for reward or fruit of labor.
Need for feedback.
Need for motivation.
Need for new challenge
Need for peer evaluation
Need for something new.
Need for new skills.
Need for skills for future employment.
Need for creativity.
Need authenticity in writing.
Teacher Goals
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Improved writing in all areas.
Higher awareness/consciousness.
Writing with a purpose.
General understanding of the technology.
Active communication.
Student enthusiasm.
Understanding of the Internet.
Students working cooperatively.
General understanding of web research.
General computer/typing skills etc.
Comprehensive understanding...computers
Work outside usual instruction paradigm.
Self-Expression in student work.
Such a model is based on the notion that students do in fact, whether consciously or
otherwise, bring to class a set of personal needs, and that teachers often have a goal
oriented agenda for the students. It suggests that the relationship between the two factors
need not be mutually exclusive, and that greater flexibility can be allowed in a web-based
course. A web-based writing course creates a natural atmosphere in which students realize
the experience of producing authentic and creative texts for a real audience, something
new for most of them.
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The following describes a general approach to computer and writing instruction. It has
been met with favorable results in that students are eager to create their own home pages,
are eager to produce written text for an authentic audience, and are eager to display their
own individual talents which might not otherwise be recognized in a traditional
classroom. The description will be made chronologically following a one-year syllabus.
The contact hours were one and half hours per week over two 15 week semesters. There
were 30 second year students in the class. Each student had access to an individual
computer during class and unlimited access to a computer room outside of class.
Introduction to Computers
Perhaps the most important aspect of a web-based class is computer competence.
Most our students have had little or no experience with computers; in fact, some to a
limited degree fear high technology, which is an area in need of consideration. So initially
students learn how to turn on a computer, and then work towards an understanding of
opening and closing programs. That will provide a basis for further understanding of the
operating system (OS), Windows 95. Once a basic understanding of the OS has been
attained, students will work with simple word processing programs.
Students will write simple profile files which will later be included in their home
pages. Germane to the understanding of computers and file creation is task repetition; that
is to say, students receive a demonstration of certain usage techniques and then those
techniques are repeated frequently. Task repetition allows all students to master the
required computer functions for the class. Task repetition is also emphasized in gaining
typing skills.
Typing Skills
It cannot be taken for granted that students who can actually produce written
documents have typing skills. Learning basic keyboard letter assignments can be acquired
without having any knowledge of typing. And without typing instruction many students
do indeed follow such a course. Students are required to keep a log of their typing
practice. (They are also required to work outside of class.) It is hoped that all students will
be able to type with reasonable competence. Typing at an advanced level is not a
requirement for the course, yet a few students do go on to become rather proficient at
typing, a skill they carry with them to the market place. In short, typing instruction is to
provide students with a basic understanding of the keyboard layout and help them in
their production of written text. It is emphasized at the beginning of the program.
Intranet and Newsgroups
The first area in which the students actually put their typing skills to use is within the
intra-university newsgroup created specifically for the class. The computer center at our
university can provide teachers with intra-university newsgroups. Such newsgroups are
accessible only by those who can log onto the university system itself. As the system is
rather easy to understand, only minimal instruction is required. What is more specifically
required is a list of posting topics. It is a list of topics which students are required to post
messages on. The list is student and teacher generated, giving a balance between the two.
Topics are related to student life, family history, sports, music, food, pets, culture and
17
views of the world, to illustrate a few. The requirements for posting essays/messages in
the newsgroup are as follows:
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Each student must post a message for each assignment.
Each student must post the message before the deadline.
Each student is asked to comment on other messages posted.
Each posting must have a name.
Each posting must be complete.
Posting must be made on a weekly basis.
The aim of the newsgroup is twofold: on the one hand, it is designed to help students
develop fluency in writing, gain confidence in writing for a semi-public audience, and,
most importantly, to help students in learning how to express themselves in written form;
on the technical side, it is designed to help students develop and gain technical
competence through repetition in typing, in opening and closing programs, in using email for posting messages, and in receiving messages from the teacher. It might also be
mentioned that the newsgroup provides a sense of community for the students as they are
no longer communicating only with the teacher , but with each other. In short, the
newsgroup is the communication center of the class, where messages are left, where
stories are written, where questions are asked,...where language occurs.
HTML and Index Files
HTML stands for hyper text markup language. It is the international markup
language used in the creation of web pages, and serves as the foundation for the index file,
the primary file of a home page and other associated pages.
While HTML is easy to follow, it is indeed cumbersome to write each time a new
file or internal link is created. So for our classes a template has been set up for students to
copy. This provides students with a basic home page which they can modify as they like .
Through simple modification of the index file the color of the home page can be changed,
pictures can be inserted, font size can be changed, tables can be created and the like. Here
simple illustrations and a few handouts will provide students with the knowledge they
will need to experiment in their own way making their pages come to life. This is the
preliminary stage in making a home page.
Introduction to the World Wide Web
There are several basic areas that need to be discussed in relation to the World Wide
Web and its classroom applications.
The first area is helping students understand the basic commands for operating the
web browser, the software that accesses the web. The software is limited to two or three
major competitors and all have compatible features. A simple demonstration will provide
students with enough knowledge to understand general navigational techniques.
The next area is obviously more important, and that of course is of what to use the
web for. Some have termed the web as the ultimate resource location with infinite
searching capabilities. While that may true in part, the question of what is most beneficial
for the classroom objectives must be asked. The objectives for our classes focus primarily
on composition and home page production. So searching, or net surfing, is somewhat
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limited in scope. A distinction between internal and external searching needs to be made.
An external search for classroom application, or sometimes refereed to as a treasure hunt,
is where a teacher guides the students on a web hunt for a particular piece of information.
The rationale is that students will gain Internet competence through practical experience
under the careful watch of the instructor. An internal search is concerned with information
located on the instructor's home page.
The distinction being that an internal search will be limited in scope and will
provide students with an obtainable example of what can be put on a home page. Finally,
it can be noted that web searching has a two fold purpose: on the one hand, students are
looking for information; and, on the other, they are finding home page examples which
they may try to replicate. In short, web searching should be the sole activity of a webbased course; rather the inspiration for student development.
The Instructor's Home Page
The instructor's home page is multifunctional. Its primary function is to serve as an
example for students to follow in designing their own home pages. It should be clear and
easy to follow. One would also expect it to have external links to other home pages-universities; EFL sights; on-line materials; other students' home pages; reference books et
al. Internally, it would have explanations on HTML, examples of generic home pages,
access links to student home pages, and an example of a home page map, to mention a
few.
Related to classroom management, it would have course schedules, posting on
course requirements, student/teacher evaluation forms, ...everything which would
normally be distributed in handout form. It is essential for teachers to also post personal
essays, stories or poems as assigned to students, adding a dimension of personal
involvement to the class. The instructor's home page is the bulletin board of the classroom.
Students' Home Pages
Like the instructor's home page, student home pages should have a certain amount
of appeal. Each student should have his own home page with internal and external links.
It should have all the assignments posted; should have color and personal photos; should
have projects clearly listed and linked; and should have all the essays which are required
for the Intranet writing list. But these things come rather naturally to students as they feel
they presenting themselves to wider audience and want to make a good impression.
Home Page Web Projects
Web projects are gaining immense popularity in EFL writing instruction. In our
course, students are assigned two projects for the course.
The first project is a group project. It entails students in working together to create a
small business in which they must produce a commercial home page with store
descriptions, business hours, product/service description and all the things you would
expect to find in a real commercial home page. Recent home pages have included such
interesting ideas as second language spelling services, restaurants, travel agencies with
regional descriptions, hotels, airlines, term paper writing services, used car sales and so
on. What is required of each group project are not just visual items, but written text
19
providing descriptions and general things related to their business, perhaps an
exaggeration of what would expected in a real commercial home page.
The second project is more academic related. Students are asked to investigate some
topic of interest on the Internet and include their findings on an internal link on their
home page. Topics ranch from cultural comparisons to biological interests. The topics are
open and the students are to follow the guidelines set forth by the instructor. The number
of possible home page projects is as great as one can imagine and are met with enthusiasm
by the students.
Evaluation
Evaluation for a web-based course is subjective in nature. While no one clear theory
or position on web-based course evaluation exists, it is clear that there are several main
factors in need of consideration. As a web-based course does not follow a traditional
writing course paradigm, more consideration needs to be given to the students production
of none text related material, the index file, the home page map, photograph and general
appearance of their text. As a web based-writing instruction is communicative in a much
broader sense, attention also needs to be given to frequency of posting on the Intranet; that
is to say, students should also receive merit for their work quantitatively. Peer evaluation
can also plays an important role in evaluation.
Conclusion
The above discussion seeks to illustrate some practical applications of the Internet
in foreign language writing instruction. Foreign language writing instruction in recent
years has seen many changes, and with the Internet gaining in popularity it is natural for
instructors to incorporate the technology into their instructional paradigm. In doing so,
many pedagogical and technical issues must be given consideration. The direction we
have chosen is to the use the technology ultimately as a motivational tool.
The idea of public displaying of student text has never enjoyed a true following;
students simply object to their work being show to other students despite all the inherent
benefits. In this regard, the creation of student home pages breaks through that bearer, and
students feel comfortable about writing for a public audience. Another area in which the
Internet motivates students is that of creativity and the 'packaging' of their work. A poem
or short story with a picture has more appeal then just written text. Students become
keenly aware of this and try complement writing with a picture or background color. The
web class is also communal in sense: the reading audience has widened; the audience has
become authentic; peer response is becoming more common and easier; compositions also
have a greater attraction with their aesthetic appeal and students search to produce
attractive work. The advantages of conducting a composition on an Internet environment
are numerous, and the future holds many bright innovations in instructional approaches
and research projects.
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LANGUAGE TEACHING IN THE DIGITAL AGE
More than any other teaching tool, multimedia technology has revolutionized
modern language instruction inside and outside the classroom. Foreign language teaching
in the Internet age has brought into focus more learner oriented methodologies, as well as
more interdisciplinary techniques. With the advent of multimedia computing centres in
the Eighties, instructional programs began to extend beyond classroom walls by offering
virtual excursions and interactive simulations in wired laboratories. In English and the
foreign languages, the wealth of online materials available through the Internet, including
radio and TV broadcasts, World Wide Web sites, electronic bulletin boards, virtual chat
rooms, and user groups exposed students to new communicative scenarios which reached
far beyond the scope of published textbooks, audio and video tapes.
Good teaching has always involved establishing supportive classroom dynamics
and personal contacts between teachers and students or between students and students.
Principled use of technology can greatly enhance this interactivity by providing instant
communication forums to exchange comments, ideas, information, and advice. Electronic
mail postings can draw shy or reluctant students into the fold, whereas web sites, online
bulletin boards and archives can provide classes with instant and inexpensive
opportunities for extra-curricular studies, virtual immersions, and guided laboratory
simulations. Quite often, students who prefer to remain quiet in class like to take
advantage of these virtual connections which assure them more privacy and anonymity.
Like letters and post cards, E-mail messages and chat room entries do not require face to
face interactions, and thus can provide reassuring frameworks without risking
interference from peers who might otherwise dominate classroom discussions.
Responding to e-mail messages through delayed or asynchronous communication
channels allows students to join class discussions at any time from any place. This virtual
openness and independence provides many opportunities for networking among
instructors and students, and for advancing class discussions outside the classroom.
Perhaps one of the most popular, yet least acknowledged functions of digital
technologies in classrooms or laboratories centres on entertainment. The intrinsic lure of
cyberspace and multimedia software adds a welcome thrill to foreign language courses
today. Indeed, interactive language games, electronic chat groups, and other virtual
entertainments can greatly enhance speaking, writing and reading skills. Similarly, foreign
films, television hits, popular music, radio shows, CD-ROM simulations, and trendy Web
sites hold great potential for familiarizing students with expressions of everyday life and
popular culture across the globe. Rather than downplaying the entertainment functions of
digital learning centres, it seems beneficial to guide and channel students' motivation to
combine education with recreation, and thereby overcome stale stigmas and stereotypes
often associated with foreign language studies.
In this perspective, digital technologies provide modern language students with
fascinating gateways to other cultures and traditions. Unlike textbooks and tapes, the
culture bound resources offer more holistic learning experiences involving all four realms
of language proficiency. In this intertwining practice of reading, writing, listening,
speaking and research skills lies the great potential for deepening students' involvement in
language, literature, and culture studies.
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ONLINE EDUCATION
Educational applications of computer networking systems (electronic mail, bulletin
boards and computer conferencing systems), while a relatively recent phenomenon, are
becoming a major area of growth, innovation, and change affecting all levels and modes of
education. In less than two decades, educational opportunities and futures have been
dramatically reconfigured with the advent of computer networking. Despite its
educational impact, there is, as yet, no universally adopted term for this new field. Some
of the terms which have been coined refer to specific application of educational computer
networking. Hiltz coined the term "virtual classroom" to refer to online delivery of postsecondary courses and the software specially designed to support this application; the
"networked classroom" typically refers to place-based classrooms that employ computer
conferencing or networking to link classrooms in different locations. Related terms such as
the virtual schoolhouse, campus, or university, similarly serve as metaphors, evoking
online equivalencies to the familiar place-based entities.
The term "online education" is intended as generic, referring not to specific
applications but to the field of educational computer networking, regardless of
educational level, pedagogy or design. Online education thus covers a variety of
application, from formal course activities to informal peer networking and interaction.
Currently, the predominant applications of computer networks are as curriculum
enhancements: networks serve as a supplement or adjunct to regular instruction to
complement regular classroom or distance education activities. This approach, adjunct
mode, is also the most common in university and distance education networking activities.
However, the totally online mode is also gaining popularity for delivery of courses and
degree programs. In totally online mode, the network serves as the primary environment
for all course-related interactions (class discussions, individual and group work, etc.).
Online education shares certain fundamental characteristics with the face-to-face
educational environment: interactive group communication. However, the attributes of
anytime, anyplace communication make group interaction and collaboration in online
media distinctive. Online education can also enable group communication over an
increasingly wide selection of media (text, audio, video, graphics, animation and virtual
reality). In this perspective, the unique combination of place-independent, asynchronous
interaction among groups of people linked by networks enables new educational
approaches and sets of learning outcomes.
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THE INTERNET FOR ENGLISH TEACHING: GUIDELINES FOR TEACHERS
Teachers have been using online communication in the language classroom for
more than ten years now. From an investigation of the experiences of dozens of teachers
around the world who have used the Internet in language teaching (Warschauer, l995a;
l995b; 1996c; 1996d), a few common guidelines emerge that can assist teachers in
successfully planning and implementing network-based learning projects.
Guidelines
Readers will note that these guidelines are independent of the particular
technological tools being used. As has been noted elsewhere, "technology is developing so
rapidly that it can often be difficult or even overwhelming to harness, somewhat like
trying to get a drink of water from a gushing fire hydrant" (Warschauer, l995b. p. xv). In
order to make effective use of new technologies, teachers must thus take a step back and
focus on some basic pedagogical requirements. The following guidelines are designed to
help teachers implement computer network-based activities into the second language
classroom.
#1: Consider Carefully Your Goals
There are several possible reasons for using the Internet in language teaching. One
rationale is found in the belief that the linguistic nature of online communication is
desirable for promoting language learning. It has been found, for example, that electronic
discourse tends to be more lexically and syntactically more complex than oral discourse
(Warschauer, 1996a) and features a broad range of linguistic functions beneficial for
language learning (Chun, 1994; Kern, 1995; Wang, 1993). Another possible reason for
using the Internet is that it creates optimal conditions for learning to write, since it
provides an authentic audience for written communication (see, for example Janda, 1995).
A third possible reason is that it can increase students' motivation (Warschauer, 1996c). A
fourth possible reason is the belief that learning computer skills is essential to students'
future success; this reason suggests that it is not only a matter of using the Internet to learn
English but also of learning English to be able to function well on the Internet.
None of these reasons are more or less legitimate than any of the others. However,
since there are so many ways to integrate the Internet into classroom instruction, it is
important for the teacher to clarify his or her goals. If, for example, one of the teacher's
goals is to teach students new computer skills, the teacher may want to choose Internet
applications which will be most useful to them outside of the classroom, with activities
structured so that students steadily gain mastery of more skills. If the immediate goal is to
create a certain kind of linguistic environment for students, once again, the teacher should
consider what types of language experiences would be beneficial and structure computer
activities accordingly. If the goal is to teach writing, Internet activities should be
structured so that they steadily bring about an increase in the types of writing processes
and relationships essential to becoming a better writer (see, for example, seven activities
by Janda in Warschauer, 1995b).
As will be discussed further below, little is usually gained by just adding random
online activities into a classroom. Clarifying course goals is, thus, an important first step
toward successful use of the Internet.
23
#2: Think Integration
Most teachers who have used the Internet have started out with some kind of
simple key pal (computer pen pal) exchanges. And most teachers who have used these
exchanges have felt something lacking. Simply put, there is no more reason to except a
significant educational outcome from simply creating a pen pal connection than there is
from simply bringing two students into a room and asking them to talk. Over time, greater
involvement on the teacher's part in creating learning activities that create sufficient
linguistic and cognitive demands on the student is needed to get maximum benefit from
Internet exchanges. And, as a number of people have noted, this teacher intervention is
most successful when it brings about activities and projects that are well-integrated into
the course curriculum as a whole.
Bruce Roberts, the coordinator of the Intercultural E-Mail Classroom Connections (IECC)
program, explained this point well:
There is a significant difference in educational outcome depending on
whether a teacher chooses to incorporate e-mail classroom connections as (1)
an ADD-ON process, like one would include a guest speaker, or (2) an
INTEGRATED process, in the way one would include a new textbook. The email classroom connections seems sufficiently complex and time-consuming
that if there are goals beyond merely having each student send a letter to a
person at a distant school, the ADD-ON approach can lead to frustration and
expected academic results‹the necessary time and resources come from other
things that also need to be done. On the other hand, when the e-mail
classroom connection processes are truly integrated into the ongoing
structure of homework and classroom interaction, then the results can be
educationally transforming (in Warschauer, 1995a, p. 95)
Of course there are many ways that Internet activities can be integrated into the
overall design and goals of a course (see Sayers, 1993 for a good overview). The teacher
can work with students to create research questions which are then investigated in
collaboration with foreign partners. Students and long-distant partners can work
collaboratively on publications. Or students can use exchange partners as experts to
supply information on vocabulary, grammar, or cultural points which emerge in the class.
Again, the choice has to be made by the classroom teacher, preferably in ongoing
consultation with the students. Nevertheless, as Roberts suggests above, it does behoove
the teacher to think about how to integrate online connections into the class rather than
adding these connections on top of the rest of the classroom activities in a disconnected
fashion.
#3: Don't Underestimate the Complexity
Most English teachers, even those who consider themselves computer novices, have
several relative advantages when learning to use the Internet. They are, in most cases,
skilled at English, experienced at typing or keyboarding, and have some basic computer
literacy (i.e., they probably have at least used a computer for word processing). ESL
students, on the other hand, at least in some cases, may lack these basic prerequisites.
Though we have had students who are quite experienced with computers, we have also
24
had students who had seldom used a computer; lacked basic knowledge such as how to
operate a mouse or open a folder; and lacked the vocabulary, reading, and listening skills
to follow instructions for using the computer
Beyond these issues of learner preparation, there are a number of other complexities
in introducing Internet-based activities in the ESL classroom. Activities in a single class
may be dependent on scheduling the computer lab, and on students finding computers
outside the class time to continue their activities. Hardware and software can malfunction
and computer systems can be down. Students' schedules might not permit them to return
to the computer lab at a time when computers are available to complete their assignments.
Exchanges between classes are even more complex. The partner class might have absent
students, or might not meet in a particular week due to holidays or other activities in that
location. The partner teacher might not have the same understanding of the nature of the
exchange, and working through differences can cause further delays. The students might
have differences in background, language, and experience which can cause further
complications.
None of these potential problems mean that Internet based activities shouldn't be
used. But in attempting to integrate online teaching, it is best not to be overly ambitious in
the beginning. A situation which overwhelms both students and teacher in technical
difficulties is not likely to bring about the desired results. It is better to start small and to
create the kinds of activities which have a direct purpose and are well-integrated into
classroom goals. If these activities prove successful, you can build from there and attempt
a more ambitious plan the following semester.
#4: Provide Necessary Support
Mindful of the complexities which can arise in Internet usage, teachers need to
provide support sufficient to prevent students from being overwhelmed by difficulties.
This kind of support can take numerous forms: creating detailed handouts that students
can refer to when class is finished and the teacher's personal help is not accessible;
building technology training sessions into the class schedule, not only in the beginning but
on an ongoing basis; working with the computer center to set up log-on systems and other
procedures which are as simple and intuitive as possible; assigning students to work in
pairs or groups, both in and out of the lab, so that they can provide assistance to each
other; providing details to the students about how and when they can get assistance from
technology specialists or others on campus outside of class; and being available to help
students at times when they are most likely to need it.
#5: Involve Students in Decisions
The concept of a learner-centered curriculum (Nunan, 1987) predates, and has
broader significance, than the Internet enhanced classroom. However, this concept seems
particularly important when considering network-based teaching.
First of all, as indicated above, network-based teaching involves a number of special
complexities. It will be difficult, indeed, for a teacher to be fully aware of the impact of
these complexities without regular consultation with students. This might involve
anonymous surveys, class discussions, or similar means of involving students in
expressing their opinions about the process of implementing technologies.
25
Notably favorable is that the nature of computer-mediated communication creates
opportunities for more decentered interaction (for summaries, see Warschauer, 1996b;
Warschauer, Turbee, & Roberts, 1996). To fully exploit these opportunities, the teacher
must learn to become a "guide on the side" rather than a "sage on the stage". A situation
which is based on communication between students but in which the students have little
say over the topics or outcomes of that communication is not likely to lead to the kind of
atmosphere optimal for language learning.
As pointed out elsewhere (Warschauer, Turbee, & Roberts, 1996), involving
students in determining the class direction does not imply a passive role for teachers.
Teachers' contributions in a learner-centered, network-enhanced classroom include
coordinating group planning, focusing students' attention on linguistic aspects of
computer mediated texts, helping students gain meta-linguistic awareness of genres and
discourses, and assisting students in developing appropriate learning strategies.
Conclusion
A paper of this length can not completely cover the topic of network-based
language teaching. Further information on this topic is available in books (see for example
Warschauer, 1995a; Warschauer, 1995b) and on the Internet itself (see for example
NETEACH-L at http://thecity.sfsu.edu/~funweb/neteach.htm). In the end though, each
teacher will have to find her or his own way, based on the goals of the teacher and the
program, the needs of the students, and the materials and technology available. It is hoped
that the guidelines outlined in this paper can provide some assistance to teachers
attempting to optimally combine their own goals, their students' needs, and the power of
the technology-enhanced classroom.
ENERGIZING THE ESL/EFL CLASSROOM THROUGH INTERNET ACTIVITIES
Introduction
Keeping students interested and engaged in the current topic or activity is a daily
challenge for teachers in the ESL/EFL classroom. One of the advantages of the Internet is
that it provides new possibilities for assisting teachers to successfully meet this challenge.
Though Internet-based activities can potentially energize the ESL/EFL classroom, this
potential may not always be achieved. If the teacher does not clearly set the goals and
strategies of the activities, students may lose interest, learn little, or both.
In this article I will discuss several kinds of Internet-based activities for the
ESL/EFL classroom and describe some strategies to help ensure that the activities will
keep the students' interest. I will begin by giving a brief summary of four basic ways in
which the Internet can be used in the ESL/EFL classroom.
Four Basic Functions
Grey (1999) has identified four ways in which the Internet can function as an
educational tool in schools. These can also be considered four basic ways the Internet can
be used in ESL/EFL classrooms.
(1) Search for and receive
26
This category comprises activities that are based on using the Internet as a huge
virtual library. In these activities students search for and retrieve information from
this library.
(2) Publish and provide
These activities involve not the retrieval, but the publication of information.
This publishing is done on web pages, which are the basic places where
information is stored on the Internet.
(3) Talk to and reply
These are conversational activities that take place via the Internet through email
correspondence and in ÒchatÓ rooms. Strictly speaking, this category could also
include Internet phone conversations.
(4) Collaborate and learn
This category includes joint projects that involve students in two or more
classrooms that might be thousands of miles apart.
The fourth way of using the Internet usually involves one or more of the other three ways.
Collaboration between classrooms almost always involves the use of email. Also, it may
include the joint publication of web pages or joint search activities. In what follows I will
discuss only the first three functions listed above, as these are the basic ways the Internet
can be used to provide activities for ESL/EFL classrooms.
Internet Conversations - An Inherently Social Function
Of the three basic functions, probably the one most often written about in relation
to teaching ESL/EFL is the third - Talk to and reply. For example, see Nagel (1999) and
Liao (1999). It is clear that email conversations on the Internet provide a useful learning
tool for the ESL/EFL classroom. This is because even though such conversations may take
place across thousands of miles, and between people who have never met except on the
Internet, they are social activities, and social activities tend to engage students' interests.
According to Garner and Gillingham (1996), Internet conversations can be intensely
social activities. This will sometimes be the case, for example, if an email correspondence
evolves so that the people writing to each other become close friends. Probably most email
conversations, however, are casual. But even casual conversations are occasions for which
the ESL/EFL student must try to make himself or herself understood to another actual
person (other than teacher or classmates). This makes the act of communicating in English
not just a theoretical problem, but a practical one. The requirement to solve that practical
problem can be a strong motivator for students to try hard to construct clear, grammatical
messages that communicate their thoughts.
However, even though Internet conversations have the potential to capture the
interest of students, there are factors that can block this potential. For one thing, some
ESL/EFL students are not advanced enough to be able to engage in such conversations.
Even if most students in a class can correspond at some level in English, there may be one
or more who are lagging behind and who would not benefit from trying to use email. The
teacher must be sensitive to those students who may not yet be ready for email. Such
students may need special preparation or may need to be furnished with alternative
exercises. Requiring them to do what they are not ready to do will lead them to have little
interest in the activity.
Another factor that can lessen the energizing and pedagogical value of Internet
conversations is student anxiety about making errors. Some students may be capable of
27
conversing in English via email but may also be afraid of making mistakes that others will
see. Such fear can reduce the student's enthusiasm for the activity and in fact may lead
him or her to attempt to avoid doing it. Care must be taken to try to reduce student
anxiety about making mistakes. One way to do this is to offer to look over and correct the
student's email messages before they are sent. In fact, going over a student's message with
him or her can be an excellent learning opportunity for the student.
A third factor that can decrease student interest in Internet conversations is erratic
replies. Sending email may be easy for the student, but to find a correspondent who will
reply consistently may be hard. The teacher should assist students to find dependable,
interested email partners. For K-12 classes, http://epals.com provides teachers
information on classrooms around the world that are interested in email correspondence
and collaborative projects.
Searching the Internet - A Wealth of Activities
Activities in the ESL/EFL classroom that are based on searching the Internet for
information are not as inherently social as those that involve conversation. However, if the
activities are well planned, they can generate enthusiasm among students and provide
excellent learning opportunities. One kind of Internet activity that falls within the search
category is the Scavenger or Treasure hunt, in which students are given the task of
searching the Internet for some kind of information presented in English (see Brown,
1999). Many other activities also involve searching for information on the Internet.
In a simple task that I call Finding Favourites, each student first chooses a topic of
special interest. This might be a place, person, animal, event, hobby, sport, or movie whatever subject the student finds appealing. Then the student searches the Internet for
three web sites that are related to that interest. The student finds the web site, reads the
material, and downloads one or two pages from the site to a Favourites folder. The
student then makes two short reports, either written or made orally to the class. The first
report is an evaluation of the web sites, telling which were the most useful. The second is a
summary of the main information that was found. The activity can be done in small
groups of two or three if the members of the group are interested in the same subject.
This is an activity that requires the student to practice several skills, including
English reading comprehension, comparing information, and summarizing and reporting
in English. It is also an activity that is designed to naturally engage the student's interest. It
does this because the student's Internet search is directed toward a topic that the student is
already interested in.
It is possible, however, for students to get frustrated and lose interest in the activity
if they have to spend too much time searching for web sites. Searching also decreases the
time available for the linguistic tasks. It is therefore important that students be wellinstructed in the use of search engines before beginning the activity. Also, it is a good idea
for students to provide their topics of interest to the teacher a few days before the activity
begins and for the teacher to prepare for the activity by searching for and recording the
addresses of relevant sites for each interest. These addresses can then be provided to the
students at the beginning of the activity. Alternatively, they can be held in reserve and
given to students who have trouble finding sites themselves.
The recommendation to instruct students in the use of search engines before
undertaking the activity is part of a more general point about designing Internet-based
activities. This point is that students should be taught the Internet concepts and skills
28
needed to carry out the activity, and then, before the activity begins, the teacher should
briefly observe each student to make sure that he or she is proficient in the needed skills.
The teacher should be watchful for students, especially those with little computer
experience, who find it more difficult than others to understand and use the Internet.
These students will require additional instruction and practice.
Web Pages - Creating and Publishing in English
One of the most potentially valuable and energizing Internet activities for students
in the ESL/EFL classroom is to create their own web pages in English and publish them
on a class website. There are many ways to go about such a project. The teacher may
decide on the theme and the overall design of the site, or this may be a project for the
entire class. Individual pages on the site may be assigned either to individuals or to small
groups of students.
Some examples of kinds of web pages that students might compose for a class
website are brief autobiographies, day-in-the-life pages that tell of students' daily
activities, and short stories. It is very important that student addresses and phone
numbers not be included in these. Another possibility is for the website to have as its
theme the class's home city or country. In this case, different individuals or small groups
might be given the task of preparing pages of various kinds of information, such as
geographic, economic, cultural, and so on.
One of the most exciting characteristics of a web publishing project is the students'
knowledge that the pages they compose will be on the Internet for the whole world to see.
Knowing this can lead them to try hard to do their best work. Of course, the knowledge
may also cause anxiety for some students because - as with email - they may fear making
mistakes that can be seen by others. To reduce any anxiety, the teacher can go over
students' work with them before it is published on the Internet.
In such projects there is always the question of how much responsibility students
should be given for creating the appearance of the web pages. One possibility is to teach
the students basic HTML, including the coding to insert images on a web page, and to
allow them to design their pages. Another possibility is for the students to write only the
text and for the teacher to code the text. The advantage of the first way is that by allowing
students to code their pages they will own their pages more fully and take the project all
the more seriously. However, too much time spent in learning HTML and on page design
can reduce the value of the activity. If students are given the opportunity to design their
own pages, it is important to set limits that will ensure that their focus stays on practicing
and developing their English writing skills.
Summary and Conclusion
Of four kinds of Internet-based activity, three are fundamental: conversation, retrieval
of information, and publication. Activities in each of these categories can energize the
ESL/EFL classroom by offering new, interesting ways for students to practice and sharpen
their English skills. To help ensure that students' interest is retained and that they get
maximum value from these opportunities, the following recommendations should be
considered by the teacher:
29





Make sure that students understand the basic concepts and have the hands-on
practice that they need to perform Internet-based activities.
Make sure that the assigned activity (e.g., use of email) is not linguistically too
advanced for the student.
For email correspondence, help students find partners with whom they can engage
in a genuine conversation.
To forestall anxiety, give students the opportunity to have their email or web pages
checked and corrected before they are sent or published. Make this a learning
opportunity for students.
When the activity is to create and publish web pages, be sure to keep the main
focus on the language task, not on page design.
References





Brown, I. (1999). Internet Treasure Hunts - A Treasure of an Activity for Students
Learning
English.
http://iteslj.org/Lessons/Brown-TreasureHunts.html.
Garner, R. & Gillingham, M. G. (1996). Internet Communications in Six Classrooms:
Conversations across Time, Space, and Culture. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, Publishers.
Grey, D. (1999). The Internet in School. London and New York: Cassell.
Liao, C-c. (1999). E-mailing to Improve EFL Learners' Reading and Writing
Abilities:
Taiwan
Experience.
http://iteslj.org/Articles/Liao-Emailing.html.
Nagel, P. S. (1999). E-mail in the Virtual ESL/EFL Classroom. The Internet TESL
Journal.
http://iteslj.org/Articles/Nagel-Email.html.
ONLINE GRAMMAR TEACHING AND LEARNING
Nowadays, it is well-known that the Internet (or Net) offers a plethora of language
resources and teaching materials: think about the access to a wide range of lessons and
exercises; the ease and speed of getting information to large numbers of students; the
attractive layout and graphics; the students getting feedback without teachers having to
mark their work.
The available resources for grammar on the Net can broadly be categorised into two
main types: information-based and teaching resources. These are sites which provide:
information on grammar items including lists of grammar items, Frequently Asked
Questions (FAQ) on correct grammatical usage, online grammar clinics/help
centres/forums inviting questions with responses assured and also explanations of
grammar rules with appropriate examples and teaching resources including lesson plans,
worksheets and activities, tasks or exercises.
A careful selection and adaptation of available resources needs to be carried out in
order to ensure that students learn to put to appropriate use their understanding of
grammar to communicate meaningfully, appropriately and fluently. The general approach
and underlying principles shaping the nature of the content of sites vary. There may be a
30
structured series of individual, uncontextualised sentences in a number of so-called
grammar 'quizzes' for easy and fast review or practice. These could include multiple
choice, matching, word ordering, changing word forms, classification, fill-in-the-blank,
sentence/clause/phrase manipulation, sentence completion and creation. Other sites,
however, offer tasks requiring more independent student research where the responses
are essentially student-generated. For instance, students have to search the Web as a
corpus for available data in where they collect and analyse examples of words or phrases
used in authentic communication.
The quality of feedback to responses given is crucial in determining the usefulness
of resources for independent learning. Feedback can be used to provide information to
learners about their performance to enable them to use the information to correct their
errors. On some sites, encouraging feedback and the necessary explanations to aid in
understanding are given if not almost immediately, at least transmitted within a few days
or so. There is sufficient support and guidance given in the form of elaboration and
appropriate examples to aid students in their understanding of the grammar item in focus.
Students also need opportunities to sufficiently challenge them and to stimulate
their thinking skills as they engage in discovery activities which help them deduce
grammar rules through appropriate activities. The degree of challenge and difficulty level
of tasks from various sites differ markedly. The structured, isolated exercises are more
predictable, being repetitive in nature with a more limited range of variety and do not
necessarily challenge students to the same degree. The degree of interactivity provided by
the sites whereby students are led to explore and think through their choices in coming to
a decision is to be considered. Skills which develop students' thinking that include the
following: induction and deduction, classifying, abstraction and rationalisation and
justification are offered in some sites where opportunities for deduction, induction and
constructing support for responses are provided. Teachers need to work towards
providing students the opportunity to discover and deduce grammar rules for themselves
from the guided tasks given with appropriate notes and comments. But a knowledge of
the linguistic terms and grammar rules alone does not necessarily imply an ability in
knowing how to use the language appropriately and effectively. Tasks which merely
engage students in scoring in purely structured tests or quizzes do not necessarily help
develop students' proficiency or ability in using language effectively and appropriately in
a communicative context . There is a need for materials or resources with a certain degree
of authenticity and realism that parallel as closely to real life as possible the use of
language. Sufficient contextual information and background material need to be included.
In this perspective, the new information technology should be used to expand and
enhance independent learning in the classrooms and made it an integral part of classroom
instruction.
E-MAIL IN THE VIRTUAL ESL/EFL CLASSROOM
Abstract
Many online ESL and EFL teachers make use of e-mail in their teaching. The
question is just how effective are you in getting optimal results in your use of e-mail as an
instructional or learning tool? This paper attempts to show how e-mail could be used
more effectively by illustrating the difference between e-mail and academic writing,
investigating how e-mail functions as an instructional and learning tool, and whether to
31
use a LISTSERV or not. It also addresses a host of other problems such as: managing large
volumes of mail, how to make workgroups work by dealing with problems of nonresponse, motivation and interpersonal relations, whether to use e-mail as an add-on or as
core, the role of the learning facilitator and the future of e-mail in the educational
environment.
Introduction
This paper reports on the perceived differences between academic writing and email exchange and suggests that e-mail exchange affords the learner a more liberating
educational experience than the confines of formal academic writing. While e-mail
exchange is a medium which strongly motivates participation in classroom activities there
is still a need for a strong presence by the learning facilitator. The suggestion is made that
mailgroups function almost as efficiently as LISTSERVs and can, indeed, replace the more
conventional mailing list. With the help of work groups, greater collaboration among
students could be achieved while these groups also effectively assist in managing large
volumes of mail. The problem of non-response and poor motivation is also discussed
culminating in the suggestion that e-mail be used as a central part of the course and not as
an add-on feature. The paper concludes with a brief look at the role of the learning
facilitator and the future of e-mail in the educational environment.
E-mail vs. Academic Writing
One of the questions which has constantly been on the minds of teachers the world
over relates to the inherent differences that we either perceive or expect should exist
between academic writing and e-mail writing when we (and our students) express our
opinions or air our views on academic issues.
The standard of academic writing has long been entrenched in its own respectable
niche and all aspiring academics try to live up to the already established norms which
have been determined by past practice for it. However, take it out of its paper-based or
paper-journal environment and cast it into the hypermedium of e-mail or web-based
publications and it soon takes on another character.
Cory Lund (1998) has done research into the rhetorical differences between
traditional academic writing and e-mail exchange and has come up with some startling
comments. Lund notes that when specific tasks were to be sent to the teacher the writing
style differed from the type of writing sent to their peers. Student writing to the teacher
would typically rely on the third person, and, further, "there would be a complete absence
of the student's own voice in the composition. This kind of writing would be impersonal,
voiceless, the kind of writing which states what the text means (A) for some nameless and
faceless person (B)teacher." (ibid.)
When students communicated with other students about the book over a network,
their responses were typically written in the first person as they were attempting to relate
the people and occurrences in the book with their lives. Other studies, such as the one
done by Yates and Orlikowski (1993) who investigated the linguistic and textual patterns
of electronic communication in an ongoing group of participants collaborating on a
specific task show that, on the one hand,
the syntax and word choice often evoked conversational informality, emphasis, rhythm, and
even vocalizations. On the other hand, the messages evinced characteristics of written
32
discourse such as formal wording, careful composing and editing, and textual formatting.
More interestingly, we also found evidence of patterns that seem more distinctively
characteristic of electronic interaction. The messages displayed graphic, typographical, and
subject line humor, patterns unlikely in written and oral discourse in organizations.
In a collaborative research study conducted by Weasenforth and Lucas (1997) about online and off-line texts of non-native speakers reference is made to an article by Tella (1992)
who suggests that e-mail texts resemble oral communication. A very interesting finding by
Weasenforth and Lucas is the observation made that the length of e-mail compositions
differed for on-line (generally shorter) and off-line writing (generally longer). Their
"findings show that there is in fact a distinct trend in the students' off-line writing for
initial contextualization of information, unlike in their on-line writing...In contrast, in the
on-line responses, writers tend to begin right away by providing their personal opinion;
and in all cases the writers use explicit markers to signal their intent, for example by
writing in my opinion, I think, I agree with the author, or I disagree with the author".
While e-mail writing is not subject to the degree of formality of academic writing it
could in itself be a liberating experience for the student as suggested by Lund (1998) who
tongue-in-cheek refers to the task of the author of academic writing to "lead the ignorant
with certainty to enlightenment and actualization. This dynamic resists dialogue, insists
on conflict, and assumes tension. One cannot state something without certainty, or waiver
in his convictions because the jury of his readers will not find him persuasive, therefore,
the writer is required to assume the pose of authority".
In contrast with this view communication through the medium of e-mail is much less
formal and more responsive, stimulating dialogue and the exchange of ideas, forever
requesting response from the receiver.
E-mail as Instructional or Learning Tool
There can be little doubt today that e-mail forms an integral part of our daily
communication via the Internet which by the end of last year already had over 100 million
users with a predicted growth to just over 150 million users by the end of the year 2000.
The technologies spawned by the Internet have had far-reaching effects on the way in
which we think, conduct business and teach. The British Council report on the Internet
and English Language Teaching (1996) reports that schools worldwide have used e-mail
for international communication activities since the late eighties.
Some organisations, such as St. Olaf's University, offer teacher assistance in e-mail
activities through their IECC (Intercultural E-Mail Classroom Connections) mailing lists as
a free service to help teachers and classes link with partners in other countries and cultures
for e-mail classroom pen-pal and project exchanges. Since its creation in 1992, IECC has
distributed over 19,000 requests for e-mail partnerships. At last count, there were more
than 7300 teachers in approximately 73 countries participating in at least one of the IECC
lists.
Jack Pillemer (1997) in his article e-mail as a teaching tool makes the following
observations with regard to e-mail as a teaching tool:



E-mail definitely excites, motivates and encourages writing.
The technical organization should not fall on the teacher's shoulders alone.
The nature of the project must be clear and a personal element in the
communication is essential if it is going to endure.
33
These observations are important ones and current as well as aspiring "e-teachers" should
take note of the comments made. While there is a strong motivational appeal because of
the personal nature of e-mail great care should be taken to ensure the continuous flow of
messages among the respondents as a communication breakdown because of bad
planning by the teachers involved in the project could lead to the project not succeeding or
even worse, to students not reaching their expected learning outcomes.
Sound technical support and reliable connectivity remain essential if one wishes to
keep to proposed schedules. The proposed schedule of teaching activities should be drawn
in such a way that unforeseen periods of inactivity due to technical problems or slow
response by key-pals are planned for and buffered into the schedule. Teacher involvement
by way of continuous monitoring of e-mail activity and guiding conversational threads
should be practised to ensure that learning does take place in relation to the identified
outcomes.
The type of communication envisaged by the e-teacher determines the nature of the
collaboration and number of students involved in the learning process. The question
whether to LISTSERV or to make use of mailgroups is important in this regard.
LISTSERV or Mailgroups? - Getting Set Up
A LISTSERV is a system that allows you to create, manage and control electronic
mailing lists on your corporate network or on the Internet. LISTSERV® is the name of a
commercial product which is distributed by L-Soft International, Inc.
(http://www.lsoft.com/) and should not be confused with mailing lists. The fact is that
LISTSERV is a programme written by Eric Thomas which introduced the concept of a
mail-based server back in 1986, which assists mailing list administrators in managing list
subscriptions, maintaining archives of posted message, making associated documents
available to subscribers or to the general public, optimizing bulk delivery, and so forth.
Today, LISTSERV has become the standard for the management of electronic mailing lists.
A mailing list is a list of people's names and addresses which is managed by the list
owner. When messages are sent to the list they are electronically distributed by means of a
software package which sends a copy of the original message to each of the subscribers of
the list. Copies of messages may be saved in files which are known as list archives for
future reference. The owner of the list decides on policies regarding the use of the
messages which he owns.
Using a mailing list is the best way to go about interactive classroom e-mailing as
this also affords you the opportunity to follow different discussion threads by way of
utilising the log files of the mailing list. A log file is a disk file containing everything that
was written on the list in a given month or week. The database can be searched to return a
copy of messages related to a particular subject or messages which match your search
criteria.
The alternative route which you could go is to make use of mailing groups. You can
easily send messages to a group of people by creating a mailing group (or "alias")
containing their names in the address book of your e-mailer. Then, you just type the group
name in the To box when you send messages. You can create multiple groups, and
contacts can belong to more than one group. If your class is small enough, say ten to thirty
students, this could be a cost effective way of managing your mail with the added benefit
that the groups remain private. A potential problem would be that one cannot adequately
sort the discussion threads.
34
By using the Inbox Assistant in Outlook Express, for example, you can have
incoming messages that meet certain criteria sent to the folders you want (e-mail filters).
For example, individuals using the same e-mail account can have their messages delivered
to their personal folders. Or all mail from a certain person can be automatically routed to a
specific folder. When using the Edit and Find message feature of Outlook Express in
conjunction with the Inbox Assistant one can approximate the convenience of a classic
searchable mail list as you can search the messages for key words.
Managing Large Volumes of E-mail and Workgroups
The issue of managing large volumes of mail is a tacky one, especially if you
subscribe to a public mailing list or if you have exchanges with other institutions who
have student groups exchanging ideas. From the start you should organise your own
students into collaborative work groups to reduce the number "identities" within your
own course. A group of thirty students can quickly be reduced to six groups of five
students each who correspond internally within the group. One of the members can be
made "group representative" (or spokesperson) who would be the outgoing link with
other group representatives. In this way you can have high frequency deliberations within
each group who then formulate a specific opinion which is then posted to the other group
representatives who cascade the message down to the individual members within the
group. With the help of your e-mail filters you could automatically forward any incoming
mail from each of the groups to the members within your group. This technique would
keep the volume of traffic down on the general mail list but would keep individual
members collaborating with one another within the groups. The teacher could decide
whether s/he wants to have his own e-mail address added to only the larger groups or
whether s/he wants to be privy to the discussions within the group itself.
The teacher's greatest concern when working with mail groups is the fear that s/he
will not be able to keep up with reading and responding to the messages. The advice
which I normally give is to set up the class into groups as outlined before and when they
run into difficulties ask them to discuss their problem with two other groups before
contacting you directly. In this way they could potentially solve the problem themselves
without the teacher having to provide answers continuously.
Non-response and Motivation
One of the most frequent complaints or issues raised in mailing lists is the issue of
non-response. What to do when you get no reply from your study partners within your
group or from other groups?
The starting point in overcoming non-response is to ensure that students and
teachers have regular and easy access to the Internet. Problems with unreliable networks
and downtime of the 'Net have been reported as reasons for not responding to e-mail. The
bottom line is, do not engage in "e-teaching" if you or your students do not have access to
the medium!
Secondly, and just as important, make sure that you have a firm commitment from
your students and participating teachers that they will stay committed to the programme
and will respond regularly to messages received. When I set assignments for my students I
remain firm about the submission date and alert them to the fact that they could expect an
35
e-mail message from me by a given date to enquire about their progress prior to the due
date of the assignment.
Some "e-teachers" are very draconian about the measures they set up to ensure
response from students with deadlines and so forth and it seems that most are in
agreement that you have to expect some students to "drop out" of the course.
Another possible reason for the problem of non-response could be that teachers do not
realise the importance and effectiveness of e-mail as means of communication and a
teaching tool within electronic education. They regard e-mail as just another interesting
addition to the course and this being the case, how could you expect your students to take
it seriously?
While e-mail is a very stimulating and dynamic means of communication you have
to ensure that you keep your students highly motivated throughout. The question is what
works? Motivation means being involved in the process. You cannot motivate students if
you are not seen to be involved and setting an example yourself. Regular messages on a
weekly basis to start off with shows students that you have an interest in what they are
doing and these messages should also prompt them to take action as well as remind them
of what is expected of them.
It is also important that you set the parameters very clearly on netiquette as some
students could be discouraged by unruly or unsympathetic classmates. Coach them on
responding on a personal basis to messages by using the first names of correspondents.
Encourage short messages which react to what has been said before and which states what
they think in return. Aggressive messages (flaming) which state what you think of
someone else's insight or level of intelligence should be discouraged as this causes the
more sensitive user to loose interest in the medium.
Setting them up with "study-buddies" within each group also assists them to
collaborate better. After overcoming their initial fear of the medium you will find that it is
difficult to keep them off-line!
Getting it Right: E-mail as add-on or E-mail as core?
A crucial decision to make is whether you want e-mail to function as an add-on to
your course as you would when inviting a guest speaker or using and audio-visual aid
when demonstrating a concept, or whether you want e-mail to form part of the course as
any textbook would. This decision is very important as it will determine how much time
you are prepared to spend on e-mail activity. Keep in mind that the level of e-mail
proficiency of the student is very important in this case. You cannot expect to spend little
time on e-mail and get the desired results if your students are not comfortable with the
medium itself.
However, should e-mail form a central core component of your course you will find
that students incorporate discussions in their home-work and classroom interaction into a
more integrated approach which will assist in realising the educational goals which you
may have in mind. If your objective is simply for them to make contact with other students
you will find it a very empty and frustrating experience.
If e-mail is a core component of the course the success of the course depends on the
quantity and quality of electronic traffic generated. Continuous teacher involvement is
very important in this regard as the teacher has to steer with pedagogical leadership on
issues and ensure constant participation and active encouragement.
36
The Role of the Learning Facilitator
It is expected of "e-teachers" today to be knowledgeable in computer applications
which relate to teaching. They, therefore, often have to work together with staff from
Information Technology Divisions to lead in the educational field, making e-mail
classrooms work successfully.
It is expected of them to elicit learning and stimulate progressive skills
development which flow from the basic to more complex notions while retaining clarity of
understanding throughout. One of the biggest problems here is that newcomers to the
Internet and even more experienced hands do not know how to react in some situations.
This is why a high priority should be placed on the clarification of goals as they inform
future action as well as reaction. Working out objectives and assessment techniques to
complement the overall course objectives require careful planning to ensure that the
course remains meaningful and stimulating.
Learning facilitators are also expected to establish and maintain professional contact
with other "e-teachers" in their specific disciplines to ensure a continuous flow of
information, especially with regard to useful sites to further academic activity ad
collaboration. In order to maintain the interest of the student the learning facilitator has to
utilize existing techniques and also be inventive in encouraging and motivating students
to take responsibility for their roles as active learning partners in collaborative e-mail
exchanges. While little traditional teaching takes place the learning facilitator now
becomes the "guide on the side" instead of the "sage on the stage".
The Future of E-mail in the Educational Environment
While e-mail still remains as a first generation communication technology it has
undergone many changes to accommodate new multimedia developments. Bruce Cohen,
General Manager of M-Web Interactive, says that e-mail is the "killer application on the
Net, and will continue to be so because e-mail is the unifying force of the global village.
Without e-mail, the wired world would untangle and wither." (1998:6)
The most significant developments in the past years are notably the coming of age
of web-based mail services which provide free web-based e-mail services and the
development of videograms to supplement and surpass animated e-mail messages. Many
services such as Hotmail, Freemail and Webmail now offer e-mail addresses which allow
access from cybercafe's, any connected pc at school, university or friend's house. The
downside is that you have to negotiate web-traffic every time you wish to collect mail
from the server. Added to this is the fact that security is compromised - anybody who
operates the pc after you may read your mail if you have not deleted it. Net accelerators
like Netsonic which builds a cache on your pc's hard disk also interfere with the process of
collecting mail as you have to remember to reload the page from the server every time you
log in to refresh the page.
This service remains a solution in cases where you have to go through a lot of red
tape to get permission to establish student e-mail address on your local network - in short,
you do not need to tax your own institution's server/s in setting up e-mail accounts. The
most important goal would be to provide students with access to the Internet.
The technology brought by video mail or videograms brings added multimedia
capabilities to your e-mail message. This technology is very similar to Desktop
37
Conferencing which is still plagued by bandwidth problems. You do not have to include
video, you may decide to include only a sound clip, for example.
Eric Benhamou, CEO of 3Com, claims that the future of networking is "a single
converged infrastructure able to support multiple data formats in the common application
of voice, video and data" (1998:46). He sites an example in education where "network
convergence will enable distance learning to deliver real time video, voice and
instructional text from a classroom to a remote student, and even allow collaboration on a
virtual white board." (1998:47).
Possibilities in utilising satellite technology is now also becoming available in South
Africa since the advent of DSTV. Connections to the Internet is still made via landbased
modem but with the help of a special satellite receiver/decoder the information received
via satellite is 10 to 100 times faster than reception via landbased modem technology.
While the speed at which you Internet depends a lot on the speed of the Internet backbone
and the speed of the servers you are connected to you may gain some advantage with a
cable modem, that is, if you reside in the US or in Europe of course! Cable modem speeds
vary considerably. Their potential is very high. A cable modem itself can go as fast as
30Mbps - in theory. In reality, they are usually connected to a 10Mb ethernet card, so you
can't go faster than that, and the real world limit is somewhere even slower. Real speeds
which have been recorded range from 500kbps to 1Mbps on a cable modem service.
Conclusion
While much remains to be done in further research on the effectiveness of e-mail in
the virtual classroom we can follow the lead of the more entrepreneurial souls like
Johannes Cronjé and Patsy Clarke who have recognised at an early stage that the potential
of high-tech communication is yet to be unlocked in the educational field. Their research
pointed out that students were of the opinion that more contact was maintained via e-mail
than might have been possible in face-to-face contact and further, that the experience
served as useful scaffolding for further learning.
Bibliography
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BRITISH COUNCIL. 1996. The Internet and ELT: Other Internet Resources for ELT.
Available online at: http://www.britcoun.org/english/internet/engother.htm
http://www.hotmail.com/
http://www.stolaf.edu/network/iecc/
LISTSERV. 1988. The Mailing List Management Classic. Available online at:
http://www.lsoft.com/listserv.stm
LUND, C.A. 1998. The Presence of Others: Voice, Audience and e-mail. Available
online at: http://leahi.kcc.hawaii.edu/org/icon98/paper/lund.html
WEASENFORTH, D. and LUCAS, S. 1997. On-line and Off-line Texts of NonNative Speakers: Distinguishable Text Types? Available online at:
http://gwis.circ.gwu.edu/~washweb/lucas.html
YATES, J. and ORLIKOWSKI, W.J. 1993. Knee-jerk Anti-LOOPism and other E-mail
Phenomena: Oral, Written and Electronic Patterns in Computer-Mediated
Communication. Available online at: http://ccs.mit.edu/CCSWP150.html#conc
38
LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES: AN OVERVIEW FOR L2 TEACHERS
Introduction
Within the field of education over the last few decades a gradual but significant
shift has taken place, resulting in less emphasis on teachers and teaching and greater stress
on learners and learning. This change has been reflected in various ways in language
education and applied linguistics, ranging from the Northeast Conference (1990) entitled
"Shifting the Instructional Focus to the Learner" and annual "Learners' Conferences" held
in conjuction with the TESL Canada convention since 1991, to key works on "the learnercentred curriculum" (Nunan, 1988, 1995) and "learner-centredness as language education"
(Tudor, 1996).
This article provides an overview of key issues concerning one consequence of the
above shift: the focus on and use of language learning strategies (LLS) in second and
foreign language (L2/FL) learning and teaching. In doing so, the first section outlines
some background on LLS and summarises key points from the LLS literature. The second
section considers some practical issues related to using LLS in the classroom, outlining a
three step approach to implementing LLS training in normal L2/FL courses. The third
section then briefly discusses some important issues and questions for further LLS
research. In the fourth section the article ends by noting a number of contacts readers may
use to locate and receive up-to-date information on LLS teaching and research in this
widely developing area in L2/FL education.
1. BACKGROUND
Learning Strategies
In a helpful survey article, Weinstein and Mayer (1986) defined learning strategies
(LS) broadly as "behaviours and thoughts that a learner engages in during learning" which
are "intended to influence the learner's encoding process" (p. 315). Later Mayer (1988)
more specifically defined LS as "behaviours of a learner that are intended to influence how
the learner processes information" (p. 11). These early definitions from the educational
literature reflect the roots of LS in cognitive science, with its essential assumptions that
human beings process information and that learning involves such information
processing. Clearly, LS are involved in all learning, regardless of the content and context.
LS are thus used in learning and teaching math, science, history, languages and other
subjects, both in classroom settings and more informal learning environments. For insight
into the literature on LS outside of language education, the works of Dansereau (1985) and
Weinstein, Goetz and Alexander (1988) are key, and one recent LS study of note is that of
Fuchs, Fuchs, Mathes and Simmons (1997). In the rest of this paper, the focus will
specifically be on language LS in L2/FL learning.
Language Learning Strategies Defined
Within L2/FL education, a number of definitions of LLS have been used by key
figures in the field. Early on, Tarone (1983) defined a LS as "an attempt to develop
linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language -- to incorporate these into
one's interlanguage competence" (p. 67). Rubin (1987) later wrote that LS "are strategies
39
which contribute to the development of the language system which the learner constructs
and affect learning directly" (p. 22). In their seminal study, O'Malley and Chamot (1990)
defined LS as "the special thoughts or behaviours that individuals use to help them
comprehend, learn, or retain new information" (p. 1). Finally, building on work in her
book for teachers (Oxford, 1990a), Oxford (1992/1993) provides specific examples of LLS
(i.e., "In learning ESL, Trang watches U.S. TV soap operas, guessing the meaning of new
expressions and predicting what will come next") and this helpful definition:
...language learning strategies -- specific actions, behaviours, steps, or
techniques that students (often intentionally) use to improve their progress
in developing L2 skills. These strategies can facilitate the internalization,
storage, retrieval, or use of the new language. Strategies are tools for the selfdirected involvement necessary for developing communicative ability.
(Oxford, 1992/1993, p. 18)
From these definitions, a change over time may be noted: from the early focus on the
product of LSS (linguistic or sociolinguistic competence), there is now a greater emphasis
on the processes and the characteristics of LLS. At the same time, we should note that LLS
are distinct from learning styles, which refer more broadly to a learner's "natural, habitual,
and preferred way(s) of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills"
(Reid, 1995, p. viii), though there appears to be an obvious relationship between one's
language learning style and his or her usual or preferred language learning strategies.
What are the Characteristics of LLS?
Although the terminology is not always uniform, with some writers using the terms
"learner strategies" (Wendin & Rubin, 1987), others "learning strategies" (O'Malley &
Chamot, 1990; Chamot & O'Malley, 1994), and still others "language learning strategies"
(Oxford, 1990a, 1996), there are a number of basic characteristics in the generally accepted
view of LLS. First, LLS are learner generated; they are steps taken by language learners.
Second, LLS enhance language learning and help develop language competence, as
reflected in the learner's skills in listening, speaking, reading, or writing the L2 or FL.
Third, LLS may be visible (behaviours, steps, techniques, etc.) or unseen (thoughts, mental
processes). Fourth, LLS involve information and memory (vocabulary knowledge,
grammar rules, etc.).
Reading the LLS literature, it is clear that a number of further aspects of LLS are less
uniformly accepted. When discussing LLS, Oxford (1990a) and others such as Wenden and
Rubin (1987) note a desire for control and autonomy of learning on the part of the learner
through LLS. Cohen (1990) insists that only conscious strategies are LLS, and that there
must be a choice involved on the part of the learner. Transfer of a strategy from one
language or language skill to another is a related goal of LLS, as Pearson (1988) and
Skehan (1989) have discussed. In her teacher-oriented text, Oxford summarises her view of
LLS by listing twelve key features. In addition to the characteristics noted above, she states
that LLS:



allow learners to become more self-directed
expand the role of language teachers
are problem-oriented
40




involve many aspects, not just the cognitive
can be taught
are flexible
are influenced by a variety of factors.
(Oxford, 1990a, p. 9)
Beyond this brief outline of LLS characteristics, a helpful review of the LLS research and
some of the implications of LLS training for second language acquisition may be found in
Gu (1996).
Why are LLS Important for L2/FL Learning and Teaching?
Within 'communicative' approaches to language teaching a key goal is for the
learner to develop communicative competence in the target L2/FL, and LLS can help
students in doing so. After Canale and Swain's (1980) influencial article recognised the
importance of communication strategies as a key aspect of strategic (and thus
communicative) competence, a number of works appeared about communication
strategies in L2/FL teaching2. An important distinction exists, however, between
communication and language learning strategies. Communication strategies are used by
speakers intentionally and consciously in order to cope with difficulties in communicating
in a L2/FL (Bialystok, 1990). The term LLS is used more generally for all strategies that
L2/FL learners use in learning the target language, and communication strategies are
therefore just one type of LLS. For all L2 teachers who aim to help develop their students'
communicative competence and language learning, then, an understanding of LLS is
crucial. As Oxford (1990a) puts it, LLS "...are especially important for language learning
because they are tools for active, self-directed involvement, which is essential for
developing communicative competence" (p. 1).
In addition to developing students' communicative competence, LLS are important
because research suggests that training students to use LLS can help them become better
language learners. Early research on 'good language learners' by Naiman, Frohlich, Stern,
and Todesco (1978, 1996), Rubin (1975), and Stern (1975) suggested a number of positive
strategies that such students employ, ranging from using an active task approach in and
monitoring one's L2/FL performance to listening to the radio in the L2/FL and speaking
with native speakers. A study by O'Malley and Chamot (1990) also suggests that effective
L2/FL learners are aware of the LLS they use and why they use them. Graham's (1997)
work in French further indicates that L2/FL teachers can help students understand good
LLS and should train them to develop and use them.
A caution must also be noted though, because, as Skehan (1989) states, "there is
always the possibility that the 'good' language learning strategies...are also used by bad
language learners, but other reasons cause them to be unsuccessful" (p. 76). In fact Vann
and Abraham (1990) found evidence that suggests that both 'good' and 'unsuccessful'
language learners can be active users of similar LLS, though it is important that they also
discovered that their unsuccessful learners "apparently...lacked...what are often called
metacognitive strategies...which would enable them to assess the task and bring to bear
the necessary strategies for its completion" (p. 192). It appears, then, that a number and
range of LLS are important if L2/FL teachers are to assist students both in learning the
L2/FL and in becoming good language learners.
41
What Kinds of LLS Are There?
There are literally hundreds of different, yet often interrelated, LLS. As Oxford has
developed a fairly detailed list of LLS in her taxonomy, it is useful to summarise it briefly
here. First, Oxford (1990b) distinguishes between direct LLS, "which directly involve the
subject matter", i.e. the L2 or FL, and indirect LLS, which "do not directly involve the
subject matter itself, but are essential to language learning nonetheless" (p. 71). Second,
each of these broad kinds of LLS is further divided into LLS groups. Oxford outlines three
main types of direct LLS, for example. Memory strategies "aid in entering information into
long-term memory and retrieving information when needed for communication".
Cognitive LLS "are used for forming and revising internal mental models and receiving
and producing messages in the target language". Compensation strategies "are needed to
overcome any gaps in knowledge of the language" (Oxford, 1990b, p. 71). Oxford (1990a,
1990b) also describes three types of indirect LLS. Metacognitive strategies "help learners
exercise 'executive control' through planning, arranging, focusing, and evaluating their
own learning". Affective LLS "enable learners to control feelings, motivations, and
attitudes related to language learning". Finally, social strategies "facilitate interaction with
others, often in a discourse situation" (Oxford, 1990b, p. 71).
A more detailed overview of these six main types of LLS is found in Oxford (1990a,
pp. 18-21), where they are further divided into 19 strategy groups and 62 subsets. Here, by
way of example, we will briefly consider the social LLS that Oxford lists under indirect
strategies. Three types of social LLS are noted in Oxford (1990a): asking questions, cooperating with others, and empathising with others (p. 21). General examples of LLS given
in each of these categories are as follows:
Asking questions
1. Asking for clarification or verification
2. Asking for correction
Co-operating with others
1. Co-operating with peers
2. Co-operating with proficient users of the new language
Empathising with others
1. Developing cultural understanding
2. Becoming aware of others' thoughts and feelings (Oxford, 1990a, p. 21)
Although these examples are still rather vague, experienced L2/FL teachers may easily
think of specific LLS for each of these categories. In asking questions, for example,
students might ask something specific like "Do you mean...?" or "Did you say that...?" in
order to clarify or verify what they think they have heard or understood. While at first
glance this appears to be a relatively straightforward LLS, in this writer's experience it is
one that many EFL students in Japan, for example, are either unaware of or somewhat
hesitant to employ.
42
What is important to note here is the way LLS are interconnected, both direct and
indirect, and the support they can provide one to the other (see Oxford, 1990a, pp. 14-16).
In the above illustration of social LLS, for example, a student might ask the questions
above of his or her peers, thereby 'co-operating with others', and in response to the answer
he or she receives the student might develop some aspect of L2/FL cultural understanding
or become more aware of the feelings or thoughts of fellow students, the teacher, or those
in the L2/FL culture. What is learned from this experience might then be supported when
the same student uses a direct, cognitive strategy such as 'practising' to repeat what he or
she has learned or to integrate what was learned into a natural conversation with someone
in the target L2/FL. In this case, the way LLS may be inter-connected becomes very clear.
2. USING LLS IN THE CLASSROOM
With the above background on LLS and some of the related literature, this section
provides an overview of how LLS and LLS training have been or may be used in the
classroom, and briefly describes a three step approach to implementing LLS training in the
L2/FL classroom.
Contexts and Classes for LLS Training
LLS and LLS training may be integrated into a variety of classes for L2/FL students.
One type of course that appears to be becoming more popular, especially in intensive
English programmes, is one focusing on the language learning process itself. In this case,
texts such as Ellis and Sinclair's (1989) Learning to Learn English: A Course in Learner
Training or Rubin and Thompson's (1994) How to Be a More Successful Language Learner
might be used in order to help L2/FL learners understand the language learning process,
the nature of language and communication, what language learning resources are
available to them, and what specific LLS they might use in order to improve their own
vocabulary use, grammar knowledge, and L2/FL skills in reading, writing, listening, and
speaking. Perhaps more common are integrated L2/FL courses where these four skills are
taught in tandem, and in these courses those books might be considered as supplementary
texts to help learners focus on the LLS that can help them learn L2/FL skills and the LLS
they need to acquire them. In this writer's experience, still more common is the basic
L2/FL listening, speaking, reading, or writing course where LLS training can enhance and
complement the L2/FL teaching and learning. Whatever type of class you may be focusing
on at this point, the three step approach to implementing LLS training in the classroom
outlined below should prove useful.
Step 1: Study Your Teaching Context
At first, it is crucial for teachers to study their teaching context, paying special
attention to their students, their materials, and their own teaching. If you are going to train
your students in using LLS, it is crucial to know something about these individuals, their
interests, motivations, learning styles, etc. By observing their behaviour in class, for
example, you will be able to see what LLS they already appear to be using. Do they often
ask for clarification, verification, or correction, as discussed briefly above? Do they cooperate with their peers or seem to have much contact outside of class with proficient
L2/FL users? Beyond observation, however, one can prepare a short questionnaire that
43
students can fill in at the beginning of a course, describing themselves and their language
learning. Sharkey (1994/1995), for instance, asks students to complete statements such as
"In this class I want to/will/won't....", "My favourite/least favourite kinds of class
activities are...", "I am studying English because...", etc. (Sharkey, 1994/1995, p. 19).
Talking to students informally before or after class, or more formally interviewing select
students about these topics can also provide a lot of information about one's students,
their goals, motivations, and LLS, and their understanding of the particular course being
taught.
Beyond the students, however, one's teaching materials are also important in
considering LLS and LLS training. Textbooks, for example, should be analysed to see
whether they already include LLS or LLS training. Scarcella and Oxford's (1992) Tapestry
textbook series, for example, incorporates "learning strategy" boxes which highlight LLS
and encourage students to use them in L2/FL tasks or skills. One example from a
conversation text in the series states: "Managing Your Learning: Working with other
language learners improves your listening and speaking skills" (Earle-Carlin & Proctor,
1996, p. 8). An EFL writing text I use has brief sections on making one's referents clear,
outlining, and choosing the right vocabulary, all of which may be modelled and used in
LLS training in my composition course. Audiotapes, videotapes, hand-outs, and other
materials for the course at hand should also be examined for LLS or for specific ways that
LLS training might be implemented in using them. Perhaps teachers will be surprised to
find many LLS incorporated into their materials, with more possibilities than they had
imagined. If not, they might look for new texts or other teaching materials that do provide
such opportunities.
Last, but certainly not least, teachers need to study their own teaching methods and
overall classroom style. One way to do so is to consider your lesson plans. Do they
incorporate various ways that students can learn the language you are modelling,
practising or presenting, in order to appeal to a variety of learning styles and strategies?
Does your teaching allow learners to approach the task at hand in a variety of ways? Is
your LLS training implicit, explicit, or both? By audiotaping or videotaping one's
classroom teaching an instructor may objectively consider just what was actually taught
and modelled, and how students responded and appeared to learn. Is your class learnercentred? Do you allow students to work on their own and learn from one another? As you
circulate in class, are you encouraging questions, or posing ones relevant to the learners
with whom you interact? Whether formally in action research or simply for informal
reflection, teachers who study their students, their materials, and their own teaching will
be better prepared to focus on LLS and LLS training within their specific teaching context.
Step 2: Focus on LLS in Your Teaching
After you have studied your teaching context, begin to focus on specific LLS in your
regular teaching that are relevant to your learners, your materials, and your own teaching
style. If you have found 10 different LLS for writing explicitly used in your text, for
example, you could highlight these as you go through the course, giving students clear
examples, modelling how such LLS may be used in learning to write or in writing, and
filling in the gaps with other LLS for writing that are neglected in the text but would be
especially relevant for your learners.
If you tend to be teacher-centred in your approach to teaching, you might use a
specific number of tasks appropriate for your context from the collection by Gardner and
44
Miller (1996) in order to provide students with opportunities to use and develop their LLS
and to encourage more independent language learning both in class and in out-of-class
activities for your course. As Graham (1997) declares, LLS training "needs to be integrated
into students' regular classes if they are going to appreciate their relevance for language
learning tasks; students need to constantly monitor and evaluate the strategies they
develop and use; and they need to be aware of the nature, function and importance of
such strategies" (p. 169). Whether it is a specific conversation, reading, writing, or other
class, an organised and informed focus on LLS and LLS training will help students learn
and provide more opportunities for them to take responsibility for their learning3.
Step 3: Reflect and Encourage Learner Reflection
Much of what I have suggested in this section requires teacher reflection, echoing a
current trend in pedagogy and the literature in L2/FL education (see, for example,
Freeman & Richards, 1996, and Richards & Lockhart, 1994). However, in implementing
LLS and LLS training in the L2/FL classroom, purposeful teacher reflection and
encouraging learner reflection form a necessary third step. On a basic level, it is useful for
teachers to reflect on their own positive and negative experiences in L2/FL learning. As
Graham suggests, "those teachers who have thought carefully about how they learned a
language, about which strategies are most appropriate for which tasks, are more likely to
be successful in developing 'strategic competence' in their students" (p. 170). Beyond
contemplating one's own language learning, it is also crucial to reflect on one's LLS
training and teaching in the classroom. After each class, for example, one might ponder
the effectiveness of the lesson and the role of LLS and LLS training within it. Do students
seem to have grasped the point? Did they use the LLS that was modelled in the task they
were to perform? What improvements for future lessons of this type or on this topic might
be gleaned from students' behaviour? An informal log of such reflections and one's
personal assessment of the class, either in a notebook or on the actual lesson plans, might
be used later to reflect on LLS training in the course as a whole after its completion. In my
experience I have found, like Offner (1997), that rather than limiting my perspective to
specific LLS such reflection helps me to see the big picture and focus on "teaching how to
learn" within my L2/FL classes.
In addition to the teacher's own reflections, it is essential to encourage learner
reflection, both during and after the LLS training in the class or course. In an interesting
action research study involving "guided reflection" Nunan (1996) did this by asking his
students to keep a journal in which they completed the following sentences: This week I
studied..., I learned..., I used my English in these places..., I spoke English with these
people..., I made these mistakes..., My difficulties are..., I would like to know..., I would
like help with..., My learning and practising plans for the next week are... (Nunan, 1996, p.
36). Sharkey (1994/1995) asked her learners to complete simple self- evaluation forms at
various points during their course. Matsumoto (1996) used student diaries, questionnaires,
and interviews to carry out her research and help her students reflect on their LLS and
language learning. Pickard (1996) also used questionnaires and follow-up interviews in
helping students reflect on their out-of- class LLS. In a writing class, Santos (1997) has
used portfolios to encourage learner reflection. These are just a few examples from the
current literature of various ways to encourage learner reflection on language learning. As
Graham declares, "For learners, a vital component of self-directed learning lies in the ongoing evaluation of the methods they have employed on tasks and of their achievements
45
within the...programme" (p. 170). Whatever the context or method, it is important for
L2/FL learners to have the chance to reflect on their language learning and LLS use.
An Example of LLS Training
Let me give one example of implementing LLS training within a normal L2/FL
class from my experience in teaching a TOEFL preparation course in Canada. After
studying my teaching context by considering my part-time, evening college students (most
of whom were working) and their LLS, the course textbook and other materials, and my
own teaching, I became convinced that I should not only introduce LLS but also teach
them and encourage learners to reflect on them and their own learning. To make this LLS
training specific and relevant to these ESL students, I gave a mini-lecture early in the
course on the importance of vocabulary for the TOEFL and learning and using English,
and then focused on specific vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) by highlighting them
whenever they were relevant to class activities. In practising listening for the TOEFL, for
example, there were exercises on multi-definition words, and after finishing the activity I
introduced ways students could expand their vocabulary knowledge by learning new
meanings for multi-definition words they already know. I then talked with students about
ways to record such words and their meanings on vocabulary cards or in a special
notebook, in order for them to reinforce and review such words and meanings they had
learned.
In order to encourage learner reflection, later in the course I used a questionnaire
asking students about their vocabulary learning and VLS in and outside of class, and the
following week gave them a generic but individualised vocabulary knowledge test where
students provided the meaning, part of speech, and an example sentence for up to 10
words each person said he or she had 'learned'. I marked these and handed them back to
students the next week, summarising the class results overall and sparking interesting
class discussion. For a more detailed description of this classroom activity and a copy of
the questionnaire and test, see Lessard-Clouston (1994). For more information on the
research that I carried out in conjunction with this activity, please refer to LessardClouston (1996). What became obvious both to me and my students in that attempt at LLS
training was that vocabulary learning is a very individualised activity which requires a
variety of VLS for success in understanding and using English vocabulary, whether or not
one is eventually 'tested' on it. Though this is just one example of implementing LLS
training in a normal L2/FL class, hopefully readers will be able to see how this general
three step approach to doing so may be adapted for their own classroom teaching.
3. REFLECTIONS AND QUESTIONS FOR LLS RESEARCH
Important Reflections
In my thinking on LLS I am presently concerned about two important issues. The
first, and most important, concerns the professionalism of teachers who use LLS and LLS
training in their work. As Davis (1997, p. 6) has aptly noted, "our actions speak louder than
words", and it is therefore important for professionals who use LLS training to also model
such strategies both within their classroom teaching and, especially in EFL contexts, in
their own FL learning. Furthermore, LLS obviously involve individuals' unique cognitive,
social, and affective learning styles and strategies. As an educator I am interested in
46
helping my students learn and reflect on their learning, but I also question the tone and
motivation reflected in some of the LLS literature. Oxford (1990a), for example, seems to
describe many of my Japanese EFL students when she writes:
...many language students (even adults)...like to be told what to do, and they
only do what is clearly essential to get a good grade -- even if they fail to
develop useful skills in the process. Attitudes and behaviours like these
make learning more difficult and must be changed, or else any effort to train
learners to rely more on themselves and use better strategies is bound to fail.
(Oxford, 1990a, p. 10)
Motivation is a key concern both for teachers and students. Yet while teachers hope to
motivate our students and enhance their learning, professionally we must be very clear
not to manipulate them in the process, recognising that ultimately learning is the student's
responsibility4. If our teaching is appropriate and learner-centred, we will not manipulate
our students as we encourage them to develop and use their own LLS. Instead we will
take learners' motivations and learning styles into account as we teach in order for them to
improve their L2/FL skills and LLS.
The second reflection pertains to the integration of LLS into both language
learning/teaching theory and curriculum. The focus of this article is largely practical,
noting why LLS are useful and how they can or might be included in regular L2/FL
classes. These things are important. However, in reflecting on these issues and attempting
to implement LLS training in my classes I am reminded that much of the L2/FL work in
LLS appears to lack an undergirding theory, perhaps partially because L2/FL education is
a relatively young discipline and lacks a comprehensive theory of acquisition and
instruction itself. As Ellis (1994) notes, much of the research on LLS "has been based on the
assumption that there are 'good' learning strategies. But this is questionable" (p. 558). As
my own research (Lessard-Clouston, 1996, 1998) suggests, L2/FL learning seems to be
very much influenced by numerous individual factors, and to date it is difficult to account
for all individual LLS, let alone relate them to all L2/FL learning/teaching theories.
The related challenge, then, is how to integrate LLS into our L2/FL curriculum,
especially in places like Japan where "learner-centred" approaches or materials may not be
implemented very easily. Using texts which incorporate LLS training, such as those in the
Tapestry series, remains difficult in FL contexts when they are mainly oriented to L2 ones.
How then may FL educators best include LLS and LLS training in the FL curriculum of
their regular, everyday language (as opposed to content) classes? This final point brings us
to this and other questions for future LLS research.
Questions for LLS Research
Following from these reflections, then, future L2/FL research must consider and
include curriculum development and materials for LLS training which takes into account
regular L2/FL classes (especially for adults) and the learning styles and motivations of the
students within them. While Chamot and O'Malley (1994, 1996) and Kidd and
Marquardson (1996) have developed materials for content-based school classes, it is
important to consider the development and use of materials for college and university
language classes, especially in FL settings. On the surface at least, it would appear that the
language/content/learning strategies components of their frameworks could be easily
47
transferred to a variety of language classroom curricula, but is this really the case? One
model to consider in attempting to do so is Stern's (1992) multidimensional curriculum,
which allows for the integration of LLS and LLS training into its language, culture,
communicative, and general language education syllabuses.
A pressing need for further research involves developing a comprehensive theory
of LLS that is also relevant to language teaching practice. Moving beyond taxonomies of
LLS, various types of studies into LLS use and training must consider a wide range of
questions, such as: What types of LLS appear to work best with what learners in which
contexts? Does LLS or LLS training transfer easily between L2 and FL contexts? What is
the role of language proficiency in LLS use and training? How long does it take to train
specific learners in certain LLS? How can one best assess and measure success in LLS use
or training? Are certain LLS learnt more easily in classroom or non-classroom contexts?
What LLS should be taught at different proficiency levels? Answers to these and many
other questions from research in a variety of settings will aid in the theory building that
appears necessary for more LLS work to be relevant to current L2/FL teaching practice.
In considering the above questions concerning LLS and LLS training, a variety of
research methods should be employed. To date much of the LLS research appears to be
based in North America and is largely oriented towards quantitative data and
descriptions. In fact, one report on more qualitatively-oriented LLS data by LoCastro
(1994) sparked an interesting response from major LLS figures Oxford and Green (1995).
While calling for collaborative research in their critique, Oxford and Green's (1995)
comments in many ways discourage such work, especially for those who do not work
within North America or use a quantitatively oriented research approach. However, as
LoCastro points out in her response,
...there are different kinds of research which produce different results which
may be of interest. Research dealing with human beings is notoriously fuzzy
and shows a great deal of variation. (LoCastro, 1995, p. 174).
I would concur with this observation. In listing the above questions and calling for more
research on LLS, I also hope that more case studies, longitudinal studies, and learner's selfdirected qualitative studies, like the one by Yu (1990), will be carried out and will receive
greater attention in the literature in L2/FL education.
Conclusion
This paper has provided a brief overview of LLS by examining their background and
summarising the relevant literature. It has also outlined some ways that LLS training has
been used and offered a three step approach for teachers to consider in implementing it
within their own L2/FL classes. It has also raised two important issues, posed questions
for further LLS research, and noted a number of contacts that readers may use in
networking on LLS in L2/FL education. In my experience, using LLS and LLS training in
the L2/FL class not only encourages learners in their language learning but also helps
teachers reflect on and improve their teaching. May readers also find this to be the case.
48
ENGLISH TEACHERS' BARRIERS TO THE USE OF
COMPUTER-ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING
Computers have been used for language teaching ever since the 1960's. This
40-year period can be divided into three main stages: behaviorist CALL,
communicative CALL, and integrative CALL. Each stage corresponds to a
certain level of technology and certain pedagogical theories. The reasons for
using Computer-assisted Language Learning include: (a) experiential
learning, (b) motivation, (c) enhance student achievement, (d) authentic
materials for study, (e) greater interaction, (f) individualization, (g)
independence from a single source of information, and (h) global
understanding. The barriers inhibiting the practice of Computer-assisted
Language Learning can be classified in the following common categories: (a)
financial barriers, (b) availability of computer hardware and software, (c)
technical and theoretical knowledge, and (d) acceptance of the technology.
Introduction
In the last few years the number of teachers using Computer-assisted Language
Learning (CALL) has increased markedly and numerous articles have been written about
the role of technology in education in the 21st century. Although the potential of the
Internet for educational use has not been fully explored yet and the average school still
makes limited use of computers, it is obvious that we have entered a new information age
in which the links between technology and TEFL have already been established.
In the early 90's education started being affected by the introduction of word
processors in schools, colleges and universities. This mainly had to do with written
assignments. The development of the Internet brought about a revolution in the teachers'
perspective, as the teaching tools offered through the Internet were gradually becoming
more reliable. Nowadays, the Internet is gaining immense popularity in foreign language
teaching and more and more educators and learners are embracing it.
The History of CALL
Computers have been used for language teaching ever since the 1960's. According
to Warschauer & Healey (1998), this 40-year period can be divided into three main stages:
behaviorist CALL, communicative CALL, and integrative CALL. Each stage corresponds
to a certain level of technology and certain pedagogical theories.
Behaviorist CALL
In the 1960's and 1970's the first form of computer-assisted Language Learning
featured repetitive language drills, the so-called drill-and-practice method. It was based on
the behaviorist learning model and as such the computer was viewed as little more than a
mechanical tutor that never grew tired. Behaviorist CALL was first designed and
implemented in the era of the mainframe and the best-known tutorial system, PLATO, ran
on its own special hardware. It was mainly used for extensive drills, explicit grammar
instruction, and translation tests (Ahmad, et al., 1985).
49
Communicative CALL
Communicative CALL emerged in the 1970's and 1980's as a reaction to the
behaviorist approach to language learning. Proponents of communicative CALL rejected
behaviorist approaches at both the theoretical and pedagogical level. They stressed that
CALL should focus more on using forms rather than on the forms themselves. Grammar
should be taught implicitly and students should be encouraged to generate original
utterances instead of manipulating prefabricated forms (Jones & Fortescue, 1987; Philips,
1987). This form of computer-based instruction corresponded to cognitive theories which
recognized that learning was a creative process of discovery, expression, and
development. The mainframe was replaced by personal computers that allowed greater
possibilities for individual work. Popular CALL software in this era included text
reconstruction programmers and simulations.
Integrative CALL
The last stage of computer-assisted Language Learning is integrative CALL.
Communicative CALL was criticized for using the computer in an ad hoc and
disconnected fashion and using the computer made 'a greater contribution to marginal
rather than central elements' of language learning (Kenning & Kenning, 1990: 90).
Teachers have moved away from a cognitive view of communicative language teaching to
a socio-cognitive view that emphasizes real language use in a meaningful, authentic
context. Integrative CALL seeks both to integrate the various skills of language learning
(listening, speaking, writing, and reading) and to integrate technology more fully into
language teaching (Warschauer & Healey, 1998). To this end the multimedia-networked
computer provides a range of informational, communicative, and publishing tools that are
potentially available to every student.
Why Use CALL?
Research and practice suggest that, appropriately implemented, network-based
technology can contribute significantly to:
Experiential Learning
The World Wide Web makes it possible for students to tackle a huge amount of
human experience. In such a way, they can learn by doing things themselves. They
become the creators not just the receivers of knowledge. As the way information is
presented is not linear, users develop thinking skills and choose what to explore.
Motivation
Computers are most popular among students either because they are associated
with fun and games or because they are considered to be fashionable. Student
motivation is therefore increased, especially whenever a variety of activities are
offered, which make them feel more independent.
Enhanced Student Achievement
Network-based instruction can help pupils strengthen their linguistic skills by
positively affecting their learning attitude and by helping them build selfinstruction strategies and promote their self-confidence.
Authentic Materials for Study
50
All students can use various resources of authentic reading materials either at
school or from their home. Those materials can be accessed 24 hours a day at a
relatively low cost.
Greater Interaction
Random access to Web pages breaks the linear flow of instruction. By sending Email and joining newsgroups, EFL students can communicate with people they
have never met. They can also interact with their own classmates. Furthermore,
some Internet activities give students positive and negative feedback by
automatically correcting their on-line exercises.
Individualization
Shy or inhibited students can be greatly benefited by individualized, studentcentered collaborative learning. High fliers can also realize their full potential
without preventing their peers from working at their own pace.
Independence from a Single Source of Information
Although students can still use their books, they are given the chance to escape
from canned knowledge and discover thousands of information sources. As a
result, their education fulfils the need for interdisciplinary learning in a
multicultural world.
Global Understanding
A foreign language is studied in a cultural context. In a world where the use of the
Internet becomes more and more widespread, an English Language teacher's duty
is to facilitate students' access to the web and make them feel citizens of a global
classroom, practicing communication on a global level.
What Can We Do With CALL?
There is a wide range of on-line applications which are already available for use in
the foreign language class. These include dictionaries and encyclopedias, links for
teachers, chat-rooms, pronunciation tutors, grammar and vocabulary quizzes, games and
puzzles, literary extracts. The World Wide Web (WWW) is a virtual library of information
that can be accessed by any user around the clock. If someone wants to read or listen to the
news, for example, there are a number of sources offering the latest news either printed or
recorded. The most important newspapers and magazines in the world are available online and the same is the case with radio and TV channels.
Another example is communicating with electronic pen friends, something that
most students would enjoy. Teachers should explain how it all works and help students
find their keypals. Two EFL classes from different countries can arrange to send E-mail
regularly to one another. This can be done quite easily thanks to the web sites providing
lists of students looking for communication. It is also possible for two or more students to
join a chat-room and talk on-line through E-mail. .
Another network-based EFL activity could be project writing. By working for a
project a pupil can construct knowledge rather that only receive it. Students can work on
their own, in groups of two or in larger teams, in order to write an assignment, the size of
which may vary according to the objectives set by the instructor. A variety of sources can
be used besides the Internet such as school libraries, encyclopedias, reference books etc.
The Internet itself can provide a lot of food for thought. The final outcome of their research
can be typed using a word processor. A word processor can be used in writing
compositions, in preparing a class newsletter or in producing a school home page. In such
51
a Web page students can publish their project work so that it can reach a wider audience.
That makes them feel more responsible for the final product and consequently makes
them work more laboriously.
The Internet and the rise of computer-mediated communication in particular have
reshaped the uses of computers for language learning. The recent shift to global
information-based economies means that students will need to learn how to deal with
large amounts of information and have to be able to communicate across languages and
cultures. At the same time, the role of the teacher has changed as well. Teachers are not the
only source of information any more, but act as facilitators so that students can actively
interpret and organize the information they are given, fitting it into prior knowledge
(Dole, et al., 1991). Students have become active participants in learning and are
encouraged to be explorers and creators of language rather than passive recipients of it
(Brown, 1991). Integrative CALL stresses these issues and additionally lets learners of a
language communicate inexpensively with other learners or native speakers. As such, it
combines information processing, communication, use of authentic language, and learner
autonomy, all of which are of major importance in current language learning theories.
Teachers' Barriers to the Use of Computer-assisted Language Learning
The barriers inhibiting the practice of Computer-assisted Language Learning can be
classified in the following common categories (a) financial barriers, (b) availability of
computer hardware and software, (c) technical and theoretical knowledge, and (d)
acceptance of the technology.
Financial Barriers
Financial barriers are mentioned most frequently in the literature by language
education practitioners. They include the cost of hardware, software, maintenance
(particular of the most advanced equipment), and extend to some staff development.
Froke (1994b) said, "concerning the money, the challenge was unique because of the nature
of the technology." Existing universities policies and procedures for budgeting and
accounting were well advanced for classroom instruction. The costs of media were
accounted for in the university as a part of the cost of instruction. Though the initial
investment in hardware is high, inhibiting institutions' introduction of advance
technologies; but Hooper (1995) recommends that the cost of computers will be so low that
they will be available in most schools and homes in the future.
Lewis et al. (1994) indicate three conditions under which Computer-assisted
Learning and other technologies can be cost-effectiveness: Computer-assisted Learning
costs the same as conventional instruction but ends up with producing higher
achievement in the same amount of instructional time, it results in students achieving the
same level but in less time. These authors indicate that in examples where costs of using
technologies in education are calculated, they are usually understand because the value of
factors, such as faculty time and cost of equipment utilization, is ignored (McClelland,
1996).
Herschbach (1994) argues firmly that new technologies are add-on expenses and
will not, in many cases, lower the cost of providing educational services. He stated that
that the new technologies probably will not replace the teachers, but will supplement their
efforts, as has been the pattern with other technologies. The technologies will not decrease
52
educational costs or increase teacher productivity as currently used. Low usage causes the
cost barrier. Computers, interactive instruction TV, and other devices are used very few
hours of the day, week, or month. Either the number of learners or the amount of time
learners apply the technology must be increased substantially to approach the concept of
cost-effectiveness. There are other more quick and less expensive ways of reducing costs,
no matter how inexpensive the technology being used (Kincaid, McEachron, &
McKinney,1994.
Availability of Computer Hardware and Software
The most significant aspects of computer are hardware and software. Availability of
high quality software is the most pressing challenge in applying the new technologies in
education (Herschbach, 1994; Miller, 1997; Office of Technology Assessment, 1995;
Noreburg & Lundblad, 1997). Underlying this problem is a lack of knowledge of what
elements in software will promote different kinds of learning. There are few educators
skilled in designing it because software development is costly and time-consuming
(McClelland, 1996).
McClelland (1996) indicated having sufficient hardware in locations where learners
have access to it problematic and is, of course, partly a financial problem. Computer
hardware and software compatibility goes on to be a significant problem. Choosing
hardware is difficult because of the many choices of systems to be used in delivering
education, the delivery of equipment, and the rapid changes in technology.
Technical and Theoretical Knowledge
A lack of technical and theoretical knowledge is another barrier to the use of
Computer-assisted Language Learning technology. Not only is there a shortage of
knowledge about developing software to promote learning, as shown above, but many
instructors do not understand how to use the new technologies. Furthermore, little is
known about integrating these new means of learning into an overall plan. In the
communication between McClelland and C. Dede (1995), Dede indicated the more
powerful technologies, such as artificial intelligence in computers, might promote learning
of higher-order cognitive skills that are difficult to access with today's evaluation
procedures and, therefore, the resulting pedagogical gains may be under-valued.
Improper use of technologies can affect both the teacher and learner negatively (Office of
Technical Assessment, 1995).
Acceptance of Technologies
We live in a time change. Gelatt (1995) stated that change itself has changed.
Change has become so rapid, so turbulent, and so unpredictable that is now called "white
water" change (p.10). Murphy & Terry (1998a) indicated the current of change move so
quickly that they destroy what was considered the norm in the past, and by doing so,
create new opportunities. But, there is a natural tendency for organizations to resist
change. Wrong conceptions about the use of technology limit innovation and threaten
teachers' job and security (Zuber-Skerritt, 1994). Instructors are tend not to use
technologies that require substantially more preparation time, and it is tough to provide
instructors and learners access to technologies that are easy to use (Herschbach, 1994).
53
Engaging in Computer-assisted Language Learning is a continuing challenge that
requires time and commitment. As we approach the 21st century, we realize that
technology as such is not the answer to all our problems. What really matters is how we
use technology. Computers can/will never substitute teachers but they offer new
opportunities for better language practice. They may actually make the process of
language learning significantly richer and play a key role in the reform of a country's
educational system. The next generation of students will feel a lot more confident with
information technology than we do. As a result, they will also be able to use the Internet to
communicate more effectively, practice language skills more thoroughly and solve
language learning problems more easily.
References
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Belisle, Ron, E-mail Activities in the ESL Writing Class, The Internet TESL Journal,
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1996
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Boswood, Tim(editor), New Ways of Using Computers in Language Teaching,
TESOL, 1997.
Kasper, L.F., ESL and the Internet: Content, rhetoric and research. Proceedings of
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Kincaid, H., McEachron, N. B., & McKinney, D. (1994). Technology in public
Mor, Nili, Computers in the ESL Classroom Ð The Switch from "Why" to "How".
1995
http://ietn.snunit.k12.il/nili1.htm
Ortega, Lourdes, Processes and outcomes in networked classroom interaction,
Language Learning & Technology, Vol. 1, No. 1, July 1997, pp 82-93,
http://polyglot.cal.msu.edu/llt/vol1num1/ortega/
Pickering, John, Teaching on the Internet is learning, Active Learning,
http://www.cti.ac.uk/publ/actlea/issue2/pickering/
Renner, Christopher E, Learning to surf the net in the EFL classroom: Background
Singhal, Meena, The Internet and Foreign Language Education: Benefits and
Challenges, The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. III, No. 6, June 1997
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54
USING ONLINE GRAMMAR QUIZZES FOR LANGUAGE LEARNING
This article is based on using online grammar quizzes as a tool in teaching
grammar to a class of 30 low proficiency ESL learners in the first semester of
their Diploma in Mechanical Engineering course. Despite the low entry
qualifications in English, these students completed the Preparatory English
Program and 29 out of the 30 students passed.
Introduction
Multimedia computers and the worldwide web have made computers a source of
entertainment, information, communication and education. Computers are versatile. They
can emulate a book, an audio CD player, a video game, a telephone, an editing studio or
even a drafting table. The combined use of computers and online grammar quizzes
sourced from the Web can be used as an alternative to printed classroom materials to
provide language practice to English as Second Language (ESL) learners.
Printed classroom materials come in one format whereby one type either works or
does not work for a group of students. However, online quizzes can be selected and
organized to meet the needs of students whose fluency levels vary based on their exposure
to and experience in the language. At the same time, while working on these activities the
students also get timely and appropriate feedback.
Advantages of Using Online Quizzes
Based on a study carried out by Dataramani et al. (1999) at the City University of
Hong Kong to ascertain the needs of the learners and to investigate their attitudes and
motivation towards the self-access mode of learning, the use of computers appears to be
one of the most ideal medium through which students can be encouraged to carry out
practice activities.
There are many advantages in using the computer as a tool in promoting language
learning. It is a one-to-one mode of teaching and allows for active interaction between the
student and the computer. It allows for the student to progress at his own pace without
worrying about negative or impatient reactions. At the same time, it is non threatening.
As for online quizzes, there are a wide range of activities available for free at various web
sites. One easily accessible and user-friendly web site is The Internet TESL Journalâs SelfStudy Quizzes for ESL students at http://a4esl.org.
The quizzes are developed by ESL/EFL teachers from all over the world. Besides
being designed to provide students with a self-access mode of learning, these are also
available for teachers to be used as materials to complement their classes. All the quizzes
are organized in such a way that enables teachers to select them according to categories
(grammar, vocabulary, reading, writing, spelling, etc.), levels of difficulty (easy, medium
and difficult) and browser requirements (HTML-only, JavaScript or Flash). In addition,
there is variation in the presentation of the quizzes such as fill in the blanks, multiple
choice, cloze, true or false and multiple choice with radio button, just to name a few.
One of the advantages of using online quizzes from The Internet TESL Journal's
Self-Study Quizzes for ESL students is the availability of a large number of online
grammar quizzes which have small file sizes using only HTML code. These are tagged in
such a way as to allow users to select either according to grammatical terminology
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(articles, conjunctions, verbs etc.) or subject matter (John's Life, Astronomy, An Invitation
etc.).
This article is based on using online grammar quizzes as a tool in teaching grammar
to a class of 30 low proficiency ESL learners in the first semester of their Diploma in
Mechanical Engineering course. Despite the low entry qualifications in English, these
students completed the Preparatory English Program and 29 out of the 30 students passed.
To keep a record of the students' attempts at completing the online grammar quizzes, the
teacher can prepare a form on which he/she can include the titles of the files, the dates on
which each has been completed and the students' scores. In this way, to a limited extent,
using such quizzes via computers to provide students language practice work reflects selfaccess language learning. Self-access language learning is learning a language using
materials in a self-instructed way in order to facilitate learning in a self-contained learning
environment. The materials used are readily accessible, complete with available help
through answer keys or through counseling by the facilitator. Hence, the students are in
an environment in which they take on the role of active participants rather than passive
recipients of information (Dickinson, 1987).
Some of the characteristics of self-instructional materials as outlined by Lockwood
(1998) appear to suit the use of online grammar quizzes made available off line to students
through computers. Firstly, it allows for self-paced learning, private learning, active
learning and individualized tutoring. Secondly, such materials can be made available at
any time to any number of learners. Moreover, the activities are standardized, up-datable
and can be organized in such a way as to allow for structured teaching. Most importantly,
learners get continuous feedback, which allows them to monitor their own progress.
Description of Classroom Procedure
During the June to October 2003 semester, a group of 30 first semester diploma
level-students from the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering undergoing the Preparatory
English (BEL 100) program was given the opportunity to solely practice their grammar
using online grammar quizzes sourced from The Internet TESL Journal's Self-Study
Quizzes for ESL students. All the students had obtained D7 and D8 in English in the Sijil
Pelajaran Malaysia examinations (equivalent to 'O' levels). These are the lowest pass
grades awarded to candidates.
The Preparatory English Program (BEL 100) is a compulsory course for all firstsemester diploma level students in MARA University of Technology. The students enter
the diploma-level programs based on their Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) examination
results. The Preparatory English Program carries 3 credit hours while the students have 6
contact hours per week for the duration of 14 weeks (one semester). The students'
achievement is based on an on-going assessment (progress test) and the final examination.
This program consists of four components - grammar, reading, writing and speaking. The
allocation of marks for the grammar components is the highest at 45 marks, while the
reading component is given 30, the writing component 15 and the speaking component 10.
As part of the grammar component, students carry out remedial work to improve their
mastery of some basic grammar rules in the following areas:

Parts of Speech--nouns, pronouns, verbs, modals, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions,
prepositions, determiners, articles
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
Tenses--simple tenses and present and past continuous tenses (all using the active
voice)
As part of the teaching and learning of grammar, the students used reference materials in
the form of handouts which had been taken from two sources - Gaudart, Hughes and
Michael's Towards Better English Grammar and Azarâs Understanding and using English
Grammar. All the handouts included teaching points/explanations, controlled practice
exercises and answer keys. The students were taught how to use the materials as
independent learners. They were given a choice in the approach they could use when
working on the selected materials. One approach was they could attempt the practice
exercises, check the answers against the answer key and then read the relevant teaching
points for which their answers were wrong. The other alternative was for them to read the
teaching points, attempt the practice exercises and then check the answers against the
answer key. If any student required further help, he then asked the lecturer for
clarification. The lecturer would then explain to the student individually.
To reinforce the teaching of grammar, the students spent about two to three hours
per week in the computer laboratory. This lab did not have Internet access. As such, prior
to the commencement classes, online grammar quizzes were selected from The Internet
TESL Journal's Self-study Quizzes for ESL Students based on the list of items to be taught
within the grammar component of the Preparatory English Program syllabus. The selected
quizzes were then downloaded, saved on to the hard disc of the computer and organized
into folders.
The folders were then copied onto a floppy disc which was then handed to the
laboratory technician who copied the folders into each of the computer terminals in the
Multimedia Laboratory II at the Academy of Language Studies in the university.
Feedback from the Students
At the end of the semester, a survey was carried out to ascertain the students'
response to the use of these online grammar quizzes. A questionnaire containing 16
questions was used. Each questionnaire was completed on a one-to-one basis by way of
interviews so as to ensure that the students understood the questions.
The students were all computer literate and had had experience surfing the
Internet, playing computer games and doing assignments either at home or at cyber cafes
prior to enrolling for the Diploma in Mechanical Engineering course in MARA University
of Technology. They either learned to use the computer on their own or from friends.
Currently, besides using computers to do online grammar quizzes, they are also using
computers to mainly do assignments in labs made available in the university. Some use
their friends' computers while others do so at cyber cafes.
With regards to the use of computers to do online grammar quizzes, almost all the
students claimed that they enjoyed it. If given a choice of doing the same quizzes using
printed handouts in class or doing them via computers, almost all the respondents chose
the latter. At the same time, all of them were of the opinion that they had indeed increased
their general knowledge by working on online grammar quizzes.
Most of the students found the online grammar quizzes more interesting and less
difficult than the exercises and activities they worked on in the handouts and past-year
examination papers. The main challenge faced while working on online grammar quizzes
appeared to be the fact that some of the words and expressions were new to the students.
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However, they overcame this challenge by referring to dictionaries. When it came to
difficulties faced in answering the questions, more tended to ask friends while some
preferred to refer to notes or click on the answer button to find out the answer.
Conclusions
The students were computer literate and were very much at ease when using
computers. These students were also resourceful in the sense they had mastered the use of
the computer on their own or through help from friends. They had used the computer not
only as a tool to access information, but also to some extent as a tool to facilitate learning.
It was also heartening to note that the students enjoyed using computers to carry
out English language practice activities and this enthusiasm appeared to be intrinsic.
Besides this, they also increased their general knowledge through exposure to a variety of
content as these activities, downloaded from the web sites have been contributed by
language teachers from around the world. Therefore, the students when doing the
activities were subconsciously developing their schemata.
The students appeared to show an inclination to want to work with friends as part
of their preferred learning approach and the strategies used to overcome challenges. They
also gave the impression that they wanted to work with the teacher therefore indicating
that they were still teacher-dependent. This is not at all surprising as it is very much a part
of the Malaysian culture to seek out the teacher for guidance. They were quite new to the
experience of not being teacher-directed in a classroom setting. However, the fact that
some of the students preferred to work alone showed that they can be trained to be
autonomous learners.
It was quite understandable that many students found the Internet-sourced
activities more interesting than those they had been exposed to in textbooks and in past
year examination papers. This is because when writing for teaching or testing purposes,
there is a tendency to use straightforward sentence structure and familiar content. Thus,
using activities that are more challenging from sources outside the country helps to expose
students to a variety of sentence construction and content and at the same time gives them
opportunity to use various strategies, that is, dictionaries, reference books and
peer/teacher conferencing to bring about learning.
British English vs. American English
http://home.ncia.com/~slarsson/USUK.html
http://www.scit.wlv.ac.uk/~jphb/american.html
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