CHAPTER 10: PEERS
INTRODUCTION
Peer relationships fill a requirement that cannot be addressed by parents or siblings. They offer a
forum for expressing feelings, learning rules, and establishing intimacy not achieved in other arenas.
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Peer group relationships increase during middle and late childhood.
Peers contribute to the environmental context for normal development.
Peer relations provide a base for reciprocity, justice, and exploration.
Parents consciously and unconsciously influence the types of peer relationships established
by their adolescent children. Early attachment histories influence later relationships with peers.
Parents choose environments in which adolescents live, go to school, and recreate. Parents suggest
strategies for establishing and maintaining peer relationships. After peer relationships are
established, it is likely that pressure to conform will be experienced with both beneficial and
detrimental consequences. Peers influence opposition to parents’ preferences in only some areas.
Nonconformity and anticonformity occurs, however, when adolescents refuse to conform to
either peer or societal standards.
Peer status is an aspect of peer relationships influenced by numerous adolescent characteristics.
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Popular children are reinforcing, good listeners, enthusiastic, concerned, and confident.
Neglected children are unlikely to be nominated as a best friend, but are not disliked.
Rejected children tend to be impulsive and aggressive, and are disliked by their peers.
Controversial children are unpredictable, nominated both as best friends and as
disliked.
Adolescents overcome deficits by becoming better listeners, learning how to join groups,
or demonstrating self-control of disruptive behavior. Social cognition represents adolescents’
ability to draw on positive relationship building behavior, to establish good social problemsolving skills, and to interpret the social behavior of others.
Conglomerate strategies for improving social skills include:
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 Discussing rationale, describing acceptable alternatives, and modeling appropriate skills;
 Reinforcing demonstrations of self-control and establishing skills in stress
management; and
 Engaging in social problem solving or decision making.
Responding successfully to threatening encounters with bullies requires added support
from adults.
Friendships with peers provide the opportunity for adolescents to develop intimacy with
someone who comes from the same place and time, and someone who sees things from the
adolescent perspective. Friendships provide companionship, stimulation, physical support, ego
support, social comparison, and intimacy/affection. Sullivan (1953) was the first to propose that
adolescents require same-age friends to share intimacy; to bolster well-being; to engage in lighthearted companionship; and to promote social acceptance, tenderness, and sexual relations.
Subsequent research supported Sullivan’s ideas. Relationships with friends who are from markedly
different age groups seem to result in more deviant behavior than same-age friendships.
Groups provide adolescents with norms or rules that all members are expected to follow.
They also afford an opportunity for group members to take on roles to accomplish designated
goals. Distinctions between group characteristics result from differences in age or culture.
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Children’s groups often are same-sex, based on chance (family friends or neighbors),
and less structured than older groups progressing toward couples.
Peer groups shift from (1) isolated, (2) unisexual groups, (3) transitioning unisexual,
early mixed-sex groups, and (4) fully mixed-sex groups to (5) crowd disintegration
and couples.
Group membership in crowds (e.g., band membership) or cliques (e.g., jocks)
contributes to a sense of affiliation, positive self-esteem, and support separate from
parents.
Crowds provide opportunities to establish an identity, even if only temporarily.
Crowds offer the possibility of trying out different roles if adolescents float between
them.
With maturity, adolescents are increasingly able to shift affiliation from one group to
another.
Youth organizations are important groups that facilitate adolescent development by setting
high standards, supporting achievement, and increasing adolescent involvement in community.
Parents agree that youth programs are beneficial, but that not enough of them are available to
adolescents. Program location may have an impact on participation by low-income and minority
youth. Programs that encourage youth-directed entrepreneurial activities promote youth initiative
and enthusiasm.
Peer groups are affected by gender and culture. Boys associated in larger groups than
girls and engage in competition and risk taking more than girls. Girls are more oriented toward
interpersonal relationships and intimacy than boys. Peer group affiliation often is based on social
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class and ethnicity that may define the group. Ethnic minority youth may depend on peers for
affiliation within the larger majority culture.
Adolescents demonstrate serious heterosexual contact through dating. Dating and romantic
relationships serve at least eight functions: recreation, status, socialization, intimacy, sexual
experience, companionship, identity, and mate selection. Developmental changes in dating follow
this sequence:
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Early dating helps adolescents to establish a sense of self and to identify acceptable
behavior.
 Heterosexual groups and informal settings offer comfortable settings in which dating
begins.
 First dates take place between 14 and 16 years of age; by 16 years, 90 percent have
dated.
 About 50 percent of adolescents have a romantic relationship by tenth grade.
 Eleventh/twelfth-grade females spend 10 times as many hours with boys as fifth/
sixth-graders.
Much less research has been conducted with gay, lesbian, and bisexual youth. Research
has revealed great complexity on the romantic possibilities of sexual minority youth.
High levels of emotion that accompany romance influence both male and female
adolescents and result in mood swings from day to day. Romantic love is experienced by most
adolescents, followed by affectionate love typical with age. Attachment history, death of a
parent, divorce, siblings, and peers influence intimate relationships.
Gender roles and cultural demands and influence courtship processes. Dating scripts are
models that individuals use to guide dating interactions. The male script is proactive whereas the
female script is reactive. The values and religious beliefs of a culture dictate when dating begins.
TOTAL TEACHING PACKAGE OUTLINE
Chapter 10: Peers
HEADING
I.
EXPLORING PEER RELATIONS
RESOURCE
Learning Goal: 1
Image Gallery: 127
Critical Thinking Exercise: 10.1
Short Scenario: 10.1, 10.2, 10.3
Essay Question: 1
Peer Group Functions
Developmental Changes in Peer Time
Are Peers Necessary for Development?
Positive and Negative Peer Relations
Family-Peer Linkages
Lecture Topic: 10.1
Discussion Topic: 10.1, 10.3
Critical Thinking Exercise: 10.2
Essay Question: 1
Video: Views on Family and Peers at Age 15 (VAD)
WWW: Adolescent Peer Relations at www.mhhe.com/santrocka10
Peer Conformity
Image Gallery: 163
Discussion Topics: 10.3, 10.5
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Critical Thinking Exercise: 10.2
Essay Question: 1
WWW: Peer Pressure at www.mhhe.com/ santrocka10
II.
III.
Peer Statuses
In-Class Activity: 10.2
Critical Thinking Exercise: 10.2
Research Article: 10.1
Research Project: 10.1
Essay Question: 2
Social Cognition and Emotion
Social Cognition
Emotion
Lecture Topic: 10.2
Short Scenario: 10.1, 10.3
Essay Question: 3
WWW: Peer conflicts at www.mhhe.com/ santrocka10
Strategies for Improving Social Skills
Lecture Topic: 10.2
Essay Question: 3
WWW: Cooperative Groups and Conflict Resolution at
www.mhhe.com/santrocka10
FRIENDSHIP
Learning Goal: 2
Image Gallery: 127
Discussion Topic: 10.4
Short Scenario: 10.2, 10.3
Research Article: 10.2
Research Project: 10.1
Essay Question: 4
Its Importance
Essay Question: 4
WWW: Friendship at www.mhhe.com/santrocka10
Sullivan’s Ideas
Essay Question: 5
Intimacy and Similarity
Mixed-Age Friendships
Lecture Topic: 10.3
Short Scenario: 10.2
Essay Question: 6
Through the Eyes of Adolescents: We Defined Each Other with
Adjectives
ADOLESCENT GROUPS
Learning Goal: 3
Image Gallery: 94
Lecture Topic: 10.1
Discussion Topic: 10.3
Short Scenario: 10.1, 10.2, 10.3
Research Article: 10.2
Essay Question: 5
Group Function and Formation
Image Gallery: 126
Critical Thinking Exercise: 10.3
Short Scenario: 10.2
Research Article: 10.2
Research Project: 10.1
Essay Question: 5
Groups in Childhood and Adolescence
Essay Question: 6
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IV.
Cliques and Crowds
Cliques
Crowds
In-Class Activity: 10.1
Essay Question: 6
Video: Talking about Cliques at Age 15 (VAD)
Youth Organizations
Essay Question: 8
WWW: Youth Programs, Youth-Serving Organizations, Boys and
Girls Clubs at www.mhhe.com/santrocka10
GENDER AND CULTURE
Learning Goal: 4
Essay Question: 7
Gender
Socioeconomic Status and Ethnicity
Culture
IV.
DATING AND ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS
Image Gallery: 164
Lecture Topic: 10.3
Discussion Topic: 10.2
Critical Thinking Exercise: 10.3
Short Scenario: 10.2, 10.3
Research Projects: 10.1, 10.2
Essay Question: 9
Functions of Dating
Learning Goal: 5
Short Scenario: 10.2, 10.3
Essay Question: 9
WWW: Exploring Dating at www.mhhe.com/ santrocka10
Types of Dating and Developmental Changes
Heterosexual Romantic Relationships
Romantic Relationships in Sexual Minority
Youth
Learning Goal: 5
Short Scenario: 10.3
Essay Question: 9
Video: 15-year-old Girls’ Relationship with Boys (VAD)
Through the Eyes of Adolescents: They Were Thinking About
Having Sex with Girls from Budweiser Ads
WWW: Teen Chat at www.mhhe.com/santrocka10
Emotion and Romantic Relationships
Romantic Love and Its Construction
Learning Goal: 5
Image Gallery: 165, 176
Discussion Topic: 10.2
Essay Question: 10
WWW: Types of Love at www.mhhe.com/ santrocka10
WWW:Love, Exploring Close Relationships at
www.mhhe.com/santrocka10
Through the Eyes of Adolescents: Where Is He?
Gender and Culture
Gender
Ethnicity and Culture
Learning Goal: 5
Essay Question: 9
SUGGESTED LECTURE TOPICS
Topic 10.1—Children Without Friends
Children and adolescents, who are unable to make friends or become a part of their peer group,
experience tremendous risk for long-term psychosocial difficulties. Research suggests that about 6
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to 11 percent of grade school children and almost 20 percent of adolescents are rejected by their
peer group. The majority of students who do not graduate drop out due to lack of peer acceptance.
Several studies provide details about the circumstances that lead to students’ decisions to
drop out of school. Gronlund and Holmlund noted that 46 percent of boys with low acceptance
by peers stayed in school compared to highly accepted boys with an 81 percent completion rate.
Females show a dramatic 65 percent rate of completion when identified as low acceptance
students. Conversely, females with high acceptance had a completion rate of 96 percent.
Kupersmidt conducted as 6-year longitudinal study to identify the rate of dropping out. The
reported rates for dropping out were 30 percent for rejected students, 10 percent for students
identified as neglected, 21 percent of students identified as average, but only 4 percent for
students identified as popular. Rejected students clearly experienced the least favorable outcomes
of limited peer affiliation.
Teachers have the opportunity to observe students in the classroom, lunchroom, and
unstructured settings. Direct observation of student interaction provides the clearest information
about student involvement with peers. Teachers may begin by asking themselves the following
questions:
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Do peers ignore, avoid or reject the adolescent?
Does the adolescent initiate interaction with others? Are the initiations socially appropriate? Do peers respond favorably?
Does the adolescent demonstrate misunderstandings of social cues or messages given
by peers?
Does the adolescent make requests or tactfully communicate personal preferences?
Does the adolescent demonstrate an appropriate amount of assertiveness?
Does the adolescent demonstrate an overly aggressive manner with peers?
Does the adolescent disrupt classroom and/or unstructured activities?
Students can benefit from cognitive-behavioral interventions to improve social skill.
First, establish rationale for learning social skills and develop skills to fit situations in which the
adolescent is failing. Teach students to differentiate between skills so that they can use the best
skill at the appropriate time and place. Learning and practicing appropriate social skills with
peers, authority figures, and parents seems essential for generalizing skills in the future. It is
important for teachers and other adults to provide positive feedback about the successful use of
desirable skills early on. Ultimately, experiencing success with peers can greatly enhance the
likelihood that students will establish a niche and subsequently develop competencies for
fulfilling relationships.
References
Bullock, J. R. (2000). Children without friends: Who are they and how can teachers help? In E. N. Junn &
C. J. Boyatzis (Eds.) Child growth and development (7th ed.) (pp. 97–101). Guilford, CT: Dushkin
McGraw-Hill.
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Hazel, J. S.; Schumaker, J. B.; Sherman, J. A., & Sheldon-Wildgen, J. (1981). ASSET: A social skills
program for adolescents. Champaign, IL: Research Press.
Topic 10.2—An Information-processing Model of Social Acceptance
Theorists who explain relationships from a social cognition view claim that immature or poorly
functioning thought processes naturally result in antisocial or disordered social behavior. There
are both Piagetian and information-processing variants of this theme. Selman (1980) explains
that socially dysfunctional youth lag behind peers in their stage of social cognitive thought,
whereas Dodge (1990) attempts to show that problems lie in the steps or processes of social
cognition that youths follow.
Kenneth Dodge (1983) explains that children (or people of any age) go through these five
steps while processing social information about the world:
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Decoding social cues—looking at the individual’s facial expression and body
language, attending to tone of voice;
Interpreting—deciding what the cues might mean based on previous experience;
Deciding on a response—generating a variety of responses that might be made under
the circumstances;
Selecting an optimal response—weighing the pros and cons of each alternative and
choosing the one the likely will work best;
Enacting the chosen response—implementing the selected response, determining how
well it worked, and if necessary, trying another response option.
Socially skilled adolescents are able to quickly and accurately decode and interpret social
cues, and successfully identify a variety of desirable responses that maintain positive
relationships. They recognize that it may take time to establish a relationship and put forth the
necessary effort. Unpopular adolescents often selectively attend to social cues, misinterpret what
they observe, generate aggressive response alternatives, choose one that works quickly to get rid
of potential threat, and enact a response with little thought of the short-term or long-term
consequences of their behavior. Resultant isolation and mistreatment by others limits opportunity
to interact with socially skilled models, supports negative interpretations about the intentions of
others, and increases the intensity of hostile responses toward peers.
Social skills training programs have been developed to teach appropriate social behavior
in interacting with peers, parents, other adults, and authority figures. Successful behavior
remediation usually requires simultaneous changes on the part of family and community
members.
References
Dodge, K. A. (1983). Behavioral antecedents of peer social status. Child Development, 54, 1386–1399.
Dodge, K. A.; Coie, J. D.; Pettit, G. S., & Price, J. M. (1990). Peer status and aggression in boys groups:
Developmental and contextual analysis. Child Development, 61, 1289–1309.
Goldstein, A. P. (1999). Teaching prosocial competencies (rev. ed.). Champaign, IL: Research Press.
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Selman, R. L. (1980). The growth of interpersonal understanding: Developmental and clinical analysis.
New York: Academic Press.
Topic 10.3—Identity and Intimacy
In early adolescence, the desire for independence clearly motivates adolescents to become
separate from parents and to establish new skills through affiliation and conformity with peers.
Erikson, however, describes the adolescent’s dilemma as “Identity versus Role Confusion,” or
the identity crisis. Forming an identity represents a formidable task requiring a sense of
independence and the confidence to differentiate oneself from peers and parents. The identity
crisis may result from rapid changes in appearance, cognitive ability, emotions, or societal
expectations. The successful adolescent represents one who successfully integrates these changes
into a manageable set of personal guidelines after actively questioning and exploring alternatives. During the time of exploration, the adolescent is said to be in a psychological moratorium.
Although the theory suggests that the stage will be completed by age 20, Erikson and others
(e.g., Whitbourne) believe that it is a lifelong process.
Adolescents also think about intimacy in personal relationships and are establishing
required competencies to maintain intimate relationships with best friends and love interests.
Erikson describes the crisis in young adulthood as one that occurs between “Intimacy versus
Isolation.” He argues that only the individual with a secure identity can take a chance on entering
a relationship that requires love. Young adults with a strong identity can and will enter into
successful relationships with others. Failure in the previous stages, or the inability to successfully
accomplish goals or achieve an identity, will result in withdrawal from personal relationships and
establishing personal isolation. The capacity for intimacy results in the virtue Erikson identified
as love.
Realistically, adolescents work to resolve both issues during adolescence—with both
stages under development. The identity crisis clearly begins during early adolescence and is
quickly followed by new issues of intimacy. Whitbourne and colleagues (1992) conducted a 22year longitudinal study to investigate changes in identity and intimacy by young adults from two
cohort groups. They identified distinct patterns of age-related increases in identity and intimacy
scores for 20- and 30-year olds from both groups. No further changes in identity and intimacy
scores were found after age 31. The final goal of adulthood appears to be the achievement of a
sustainable balance between independence and intimacy.
References
Erikson, E. H. (1964). Insight and responsibility. New York: Norton.
Hergenhahn, B. R. (1995). An introduction to theories of personality. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Whitbourne, S. K.; Zuschlag, M. K.; Elliot, L. B., & Waterman, A. S. (1992). Psychosocial development in
adulthood: A 22-year sequential study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 260–271.
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CLASSROOM DISCUSSIONS AND ACTIVITIES
Discussion Topics
Discussion 10.1—The Nature of Parent and Peer Influence
A common stereotype of peer influence on adolescents is that peer influence inevitably places
adolescents in conflict with their parents. An older term in the literature for this conflict is crosspressure. Interestingly, research has shown that parents and peers are well connected (Updegraff,
1999; Walker, Hennig, Krettenauer, 2000). Educational attainment and personal habits tend to be
highly correlated between parents and peers. The stereotype, however, persists.
A good way to discuss the nature of parent versus peer influence would be to consider in
detail the classic work of sociologist Clay Brittain. Brittain presented teenagers with a series of
hypothetical dilemmas in which an adolescent receives conflicting advice from parents and
peers. In his research, he had participants decide which advice the adolescent should follow. A
clever feature of Brittain’s research was that he presented subjects with the same dilemmas two
weeks later, but reversed the advice parents and peers were giving them, and again had his
participants decide which advice the adolescent should follow. If his respondents shifted their
decisions in either the new peer- or parent-endorsed alternative, Brittain had a measure of parent
or peer orientation. If his respondents continued to endorse the same solution despite the change
in who endorsed it, Brittain had a measure of independence from parent or peer influence.
Obtain a copy of Brittain’s research report. Read a sample dilemma to the class, and discuss
with your students whether the dilemmas seem compelling to them as problems wherein peer and
parent advice might clash. Review Brittain’s research design and strategy and discuss its strengths
and weaknesses. Finally, review his findings, and relate them to more contemporary research. You
will be able to show that research on this issue has been very consistent over the years: Parent and
teen influences are as likely to complement each other as they are to contradict each other.
This discussion topic provides a point of departure for later discussions on conditions and
factors that genuinely put peer influences in opposition to parents’ influences on their teenagers.
References
Brittain, C. V. (1969). A comparison of rural and urban adolescents with respect to peer versus parent
compliance. Adolescence, 4, 59–68.
Brittain, C. V. (1967). An exploration of the bases of peer-compliance and parent-compliance in
adolescence. Adolescence, 2, 445–458.
Updegraff, K. A.; McHale, S. M.; Crouter, A. C., & Kupanoff, K. (2001). Parents’ involvement in
adolescents’ peer relationships: A comparison of mothers’ and fathers’ roles. Journal of Marriage
and Family, 63, 655–668.
Walker, L. J.; Hennig, K. H., & Krettenauer, T. (2000). Parent and peer contexts for children’s moral
reasoning development. Child Development, 71, 1033–1048.
Discussion 10.2—Liking, Loving, and Relating
S. S. Hendrick and C. Hendrick have created, validated, and compiled considerable research with
an instrument called “The Love Attitude Scale.” This is a device for determining which of seven
different types of love predominates in the respondent’s love relationships. Try to obtain a copy
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of the scale from Hendrick’s book, Liking, Loving, and Relating (1992), and administer it to your
class. Have your students score their responses. Depending on how shy and responsive your class
is, you can collect the data as a basis for discussing the prevalence of different types of love
among their cohorts, among younger adolescent cohorts, and among adult cohorts. The
experience may also be the springboard for a discussion of methodological issues in the study of
love (can you really use questionnaires to study it?), or the controversy about whether love and
romance are appropriate topics for research.
References
Hendrick, S. S., & Hendrick, C. (1992). Liking, loving, and relating. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole
Publishing Co.
Hendrick, S. S., & Hendrick, C. (1992). Romantic love. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Hendrick, S. S., & Hendrick, C. (1997). Love and satisfaction. In R. J. Sternberg & M. Hojjat (Eds.),
Satisfaction in close relationships (pp. 56–78). New York: Guilford.
Discussion 10.3—Musical Inspirations
Adolescent musical preferences may be analyzed to determine whether adolescents are making
political or value-oriented statements that separate them from adults. You can engage the class in
a very interesting activity by playing tapes or CDs of songs from the 1960s, 1970s, 1980s, and
1990s and having students analyze these songs in terms of (a) sexual themes; (b) conflict with or
rebellion against adults; and (c) adolescent preoccupations (e.g., love, cars, sex). You can also
mention some of the early accusations against rock music (e.g., being communist-inspired or an
immoral influence on youth). Michael Walraven, who made this suggestion for a class activity in
the instructor’s course planner for the fifth edition of Adolescence, recommends these songs:
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Queen, “I’m in Love with My Car”
Jackson Brown, “Cocaine” and “Daddy’s Tune”
Joni Mitchell, “Big Yellow Taxi”
Stevie Nicks, “Stop Dragging My Heart Around”
Crosby, Stills, Nash, and Young, “Teach Your Children Well”
Bob Dylan, “The Times, They are a-Changing”
Cat Stevens, “Peace Train,” “Father and Son,” “Where Do the Children Play?”
Bob Seger, “Night Moves”
Reference
Walraven, M. G. (1993). Instructor’s course planner to accompany Adolescence (5th ed.) by J. Santrock.
Dubuque: Brown and Benchmark, Publishers.
Discussion 10.4—Friendships
Ask students to describe the first friendship they can remember and a more recent friendship.
What did they do with their first friend? What did they know about that friend? What about their
recent friend? How does the intimacy in the two friendships differ? How does this difference
confirm or deny the developmental data presented in the text? Are there general characteristics
for earlier or later friendships for the groups?
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Early friendships are generally based on proximity and similarity. Friendships later in life
involve more intimacy than friendships early in life. Younger friendships might be expected to
focus on play activities; friendships of older individuals might focus more on conversation,
sharing ideas, and feelings.
Students are likely to remember more details about their friends in junior high school and
high school relative to their memories of specific activities. Because of the more intimate nature
of friendships in the later years of school, they probably learned more about these people at the
time. There is also a time compound to explain the difference.
Reference
King, M. B., & Clark, D. E. (1989). Instructors’ manual to accompany Child development: An introduction (4th ed.) by J. Santrock and Yessen. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown Publishers.
Discussion 10.5—The Power of Peers
Demonstrate the power of groups by reenacting the Asch conformity experiment. Asch presented
a list of adjectives to participants, alternating a single word in the list, to describe a person.
Participants then were asked to write a description of their impressions of the fictitious person.
Ex: John: “intelligent, skillful, industrious, _______, determined, practical, cautious.” The words
used to fill in the blank were “warm, cold, polite, or blunt.” The paper summarized the results of
his research, but in a nutshell, “warm” was associated with generous and “cold” was associated
with reliable, but the terms polite and blunt seemed to be associated with a variety of descriptors.
The experiment may be replicated easily, but you have to take care in recruiting class members
to be your confederates. Use this experience to discuss the nature and influence of real conformity pressures in adolescents’ lives.
Reference
Asch, S. E. (1946). Forming impressions of personality. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 41,
258–290.
In-Class Activities
Activity 10.1—Student Reports on Crowds
James Coleman demonstrated different peer crowds in high schools by asking students to name
the groups in their school. Your students can attest to this as well. Have students list the major
high school crowds that they can remember. Urge them to use the names that identified these
crowds and to write brief descriptions of the individuals who belonged to each.
Next, collect the lists of crowds from some or all of your students, or have them read
their lists to the class. In either case, write the names down on a blackboard or overhead. Attempt
to note whether students from different high schools report the same type of crowd, and keep
track of the number of crowds reported by students.
Finally, show that the number and types of crowds are fairly similar from high school to
high school. For example, there should be athletic crowds, academic crowds, rebellious crowds,
burnout crowds, and political crowds. Whatever you find, explain students’ reports in relation to
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material in Adolescence on the nature, significance, impact, and function of adolescent crowds
and Research Article 2, Adolescent Peer Networks, that follows.
References
Coleman, J. S. (1980). The peer group. In J. Adelson (Ed.), Handbook of adolescent psychology. New
York: Wiley.
Urberg, K. A.; Degirmencioglu, S. M.; Tolson, J. M., & Halliday-Scher, K. (1995). The structure of
adolescent peer networks. Developmental Psychology, 31, 540–547.
Activity 10.2—Psychometric Measures
Have your students develop psychometric techniques to identify individuals who are popular,
socially accepted, and have high status. You can suggest naturalistic observations of adolescent
groups, and encourage students to define operational behaviors that reflect the underlying
construct (e.g., number of times a person complies with someone else’s suggestions, time spent
talking, seating arrangements). This exercise can be used to introduce the sociogram, or students
could develop a paper-and-pencil measure of popularity. Whatever approach you encourage
students to take, have students think of ways to validate their instruments and to compare them
with measures described in the literature.
Reference
Walraven, M. G. (1993). Instructor’s course planner to accompany Adolescence (5th ed.) by J. Santrock.
Dubuque: Brown and Benchmark, Publishers.
Critical Thinking Exercises
Exercise 10.1—Theoretical Orientation
In the first Critical Thinking Exercise of the previous chapter you attempted to determine which
of the five theoretical orientations Santrock outlined in Chapter 2 of Adolescence was most
influential in the chapter. Do the same again for Chapter 10: Which theoretical orientation seems
to be most dominant in this chapter? Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the
best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate.
A.
B.
C.
Psychoanalytic theories
Cognitive theories
Behavioral and social learning theories
D.
E.
Ecological theories
An eclectic theoretical orientation
Exercise 10.2—Peer Relationships
An important concern for anyone who wants to intervene in adolescents’ peer relationships is
accurate knowledge of the causes of successful or unsuccessful peer relationships. A limitation
on research in this area is the difficulty of doing experimental work that would provide direct
evidence of causal relationships. Listed below are several relationships derived from research
that potentially have useful applications in intervention. Which of these is most clearly known to
be based on causal relationship, according to information in Adolescence? Circle the letter of
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the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not
as appropriate.
A.
Six concentration camp children who lost their parents but had intense attachments to each
other became relatively normal adults.
B.
Popular children are more likely than unpopular children to communicate clearly with their
peers.
C.
Negative-peer-status sixth graders are less likely than positive-peer status sixth graders to
generate alternative solutions to hypothetical problems.
D.
Students who show interest in others, cooperate, and maintain communication enjoy better
peer relations than those who do not.
E.
Early maturing girls are more likely to associate with girls older than they are and to
engage in a number of deviant behaviors.
Exercise 10.3—Dating and Romantic Relationships
In Chapter 10, Santrock explores “Dating and Romantic Relationships,” social exchanges between
adolescents in formal and informal dating contexts. Within the context of this section of the
chapter, which of the following is an assumption, rather than an inference or an observation, we
must make in order to accept the accuracy of Sherif’s findings? Circle the letter of the best
answer, explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as
appropriate.
A.
Although most 15-year-olds said that they had had a girlfriend of boyfriend in the past
three years, most were not currently dating.
B.
Males followed a proactive dating script, females a reactive one.
C.
Romantic relationships often are involved in an adolescent’s emotional experiences.
D.
Boys frequently discussed girls and sex.
E.
Adolescents with a secure attachment to parents are likely to approach romantic
relationships expecting closeness, warmth, and intimacy.
IM 10 | 13
Answer Key for Critical Thinking Exercises
Exercise 10.1
A. This is not the best answer. Psychoanalytic thinking importantly influences the material on
friendship, but makes no contribution to the other topics in the chapter. Attachment theory
influences the discussion of romantic relationships. Dunphy’s theory has a strong
maturational foundation.
B.
This is not the best answer. Cognitive theories are particularly important in the discussion
of popularity, social knowledge, and social information processing; cognitive-behavioral
theory contributes to strategies for improving adolescents’ social skills. Dating scripts are
also examples of cognitive constructs used to understand adolescent peer relations.
However, cognitive theories are absent in discussions of most other aspects of peer
relations.
C.
This is the best answer. Behavioral and social learning theories play a role in peer group
functions, in the analysis of popularity, and in social strategies for improving adolescents’
social skills. There is also the implication that learning and social learning processes play a
role in friendship, group formation, and youth organizations. Behavioral and social learning
theory orientations seem to influence questions and research methods in each major topic
area in the chapter.
D.
This is not the best answer. Interestingly, in contrast to the analysis of families, the analysis
of peer relations involves considerably less attention to interactions between social
systems. The ecological orientation influences the material on ethnic minority adolescents’
peer relations, and the consideration of family-peer linkages discussed early in the chapter.
In fact this perspective appears to get the least play in Chapter 10.
E.
This is the second best answer. The foregoing arguments make the case for this alternative.
All of the perspectives make a contribution to Chapter 10.
Exercise 10.2
A. This is not the best answer. Although in the context of the monkey findings Freud and
Dann’s case study of these six children is compelling, it is nevertheless a case study and
therefore not evidence that intense peer attachments have a causal influence on
developmental outcomes.
B.
This is not the best answer. The finding is essentially correlational, and therefore not
evidence that any specific behavior of popular children causes them to be popular.
C.
This is not the best answer. Again, the finding is correlational, and not evidence of causeeffect relationships.
IM 10 | 14
D.
This is the best answer. This claim is supported by an experimental study in which socially
deficient children were trained in these skills. Compared to a control, they became more
sociable with their peers.
E.
This is not the best answer. Even though the finding derives from a longitudinal study and
the pattern of findings is compelling, the work is correlational.
Exercise 10.3
A. This is not the best answer because it is an observation. Most 15-year-olds had
relationships within the previous four months, but less than 10 percent had a relationship
that lasted longer than one year.
B.
This is not the best answer. This is an inference because examples are provided but there
are no data to indicate the consistency of this finding.
C.
This is not the best answer because it is another observation. Romantic relationships
explained one-third of females’ and one-quarter of males’ strong emotions, a significantly
higher response than school, family, and same-sex peer relationships.
D.
This is the best answer because it is an assumption. No further discussion of the topic is
presented.
E.
This is not the best answer. This is an inference because, although it is not supported by
arguments that explain it specifically, it is part of a larger argument that specific insecure
attachment styles are likely to be related to adolescents’ romantic relationships.
Short Scenarios
Scenario 10.1
Marsha has just learned that she and Jessica were elected to the student council. She wonders if
her peers elected her because they think she can do the job well or because she is a good listener
with a pretty smile. Actually, if you’re smart, it works best to express moderate interest and
concern and keep unusual ideas to yourself. Marsha has found that she can stay relaxed and go
along with others’ ideas for periods of time, but sooner or later, something happens that is
impossible to ignore. It’s when she gets really excited, in either a positive or negative way, that
she blows her cover as a “normal” person. At least she isn’t a wallflower like some of the kids.
It’s better to be noticed for taking a stand than to be ignored altogether. Of course, there are
always those kids that everybody notices and everybody agrees are completely intolerable. How
could you not notice them?—they are rude, mean, and obnoxious. Certainly neither those who
are ignored or despised will ever be in a position to get on the student council. Even though it is
sometimes a lot of work to keep her temper in check, it’s important to count to ten and think of
the other person’s point of view. Anyway, she must be doing well enough. She now has an
IM 10 | 15
opportunity to work with some of the other students on the council to accomplish something
worthwhile. First she will suggest some ways to show appreciation for the band members, chess
club, and the athletic team. Then she will organize a community project.







Marsha wonders if she was elected for her academic abilities and potential to be a
good representative or her knowledge of social cognition.
Marsha recognizes the behavior patterns associated with being popular: enthusiasm,
concern for others, self-confidence, and avoiding impulsive, emotional outbursts.
Marsha may be labeled as a controversial adolescent because she does demonstrate
some impulsive and disruptive behavior that calls attention to herself; the behavior
may have a positive or a negative effect on her peers.
She recognizes that her behavior has some similarities and differences from rejected
students who are aggressive or shy.
Marsha describes some techniques that she uses to regulate her emotions—such as
counting to ten and reasoning through explanations of her peers’ behavior.
Marsha will take part in the activities of the student council, an organization that can
be described as a crowd of students working on the same activities.
She recognizes the opportunity that youth organizations have to impact her
community and to acknowledge peers’ academic, artistic, and athletic achievements.
Scenario 10.2
Lev has already had three dates since the girls started joining Gene and him at the coffeehouse. It
didn’t take him long to pick Sondra. Gene has found the transitions through junior high and high
school very interesting as both participant and observer. Lev always was more interested in the
girls than he was himself. Lev was the first one in the group to invite girls to join them
occasionally for trips to a Saturday matinee, to meet friends for a hamburger and coke, or attend
a summer evening baseball game. In junior high, when groups of girls joined the guys, Gene was
only peripherally involved with conversation or interaction that involved the girls. In his
freshman year of high school, he began to find the other guy’s girlfriends more agreeable, but
certainly wouldn’t spend his own money on them. A couple of the guys started planning dates
for school dances. Lev seems to be enjoying his girlfriend both as part of group activities and on
one-to-one dates. Gene is beginning to get more interested in dating, but he has not yet found
anyone who meets his expectations. He thinks his choices will improve when he transfers to a
magnet school for math, sciences, and college preparation.



Gene seems to be at Dunphy’s stage 4, participating in fully developed mix-sex group
with close associations.
Lev is making the transition to Dunphy’s stage 5; he may be leading the crowd
disintegration as he begins to establish group associations as couples.
Lev possibly was more socially oriented or matured at a faster rate than Gene, thus
leading the progression of peer group relations.
IM 10 | 16




The dating process began informally as a group, demonstrating early exploratory
behavior of romantic relationships.
Gene is learning about socialization processes with girls in the group context.
Lev appears to be establishing intimacy and meaning in a single relationship.
Gene appears to be focused on some components of the status and achievement
function of dating as he expresses a desire for specific characteristics in a dating
partner.
Scenario 10.3
Janet has good relationships with her parents and brother, and they talk with and tease each other
every day. It is rare that they would argue and really be angry at each other for any period of
time. Her parents are “doers” and have a lot of friends that they know from work and community
volunteer work. As it happens, her parents are friends with parents of her friends from clubs and
organizations in which she has membership. Janet enjoys most of the members from these
groups too. In grade school, Janet’s close friends were always girls. During her first year in
middle school, some of the clubs like figure skating and hockey started doing things together
after practice. Later in junior high, her parents let her go on “group dates” with friends from
church or school. They went to arcades with video games, to the mall, and to ice cream stores.
As a group, they occasionally helped with fundraisers for the skating teams.
Last September Janet met Ryan, a new student who recently moved from San Francisco.
They talk on the telephone almost every day, meet after school to work on homework a couple
times a week, and go on a formal date every Saturday night. They often go to a game, party, or
meet friends on weekends too. Neither of them takes the other for granted, but they both have
plans for college and career and realistic expectations for a romantic relationship.








Janet appears to be securely attached to her parents and has a good sibling
relationship.
The positive family relationships appear to be carried forward into positive
relationships with her peers.
The family has a pattern of community service and participation in community
organizations.
The family-peer linkage that Janet’s parents have established is strong, and her
parents have a great deal of influence on the relationships Janet establishes with her
peers.
Janet’s participation in figure skating allows her to participate in a crowd focused on
athleticism, achievement, and competition.
The interaction between the figure skating and hockey teams followed Dunphy’s
progression of peer group relations.
Janet belongs to the 50% of students who have a date every week and up to ten hours
a week with Ryan.
The characteristics of the youth organization have lead the adolescents to demonstrate
initiative in achievement and developing funding to support the teams.
IM 10 | 17

The function of dating for Janet and Ryan appears to include every function except
serious courtship.
CURRENT RESEARCH ARTICLES
Article 10.1—Popular Boys
Little research has been completed to identify behavior profiles of different categories of popular
children. Typically, children with high status on sociometric scales are characterized as “cooperative, sociable, assertive, sensitive, helpful, and constructive” (p. 14). Children with controversial
status are similar to popular children and are often nominated as “most liked,” as well as “least
liked.” The behavior patterns associated with controversial students are not clearly understood. This
investigation analyzed the behavior categories associated with popular and controversial children,
specified as popular-prosocial and popular-antisocial boys. Comparisons were made across peerraters and self-raters and between different ethnic backgrounds in relation to configurations of
characteristic behavior.
Participants were fourth through sixth grade boys from Chicago and North Carolina. A
total of 59 classrooms and 948 students with 452 boys, 271 from urban Chicago and 181 from
small town/rural North Carolina, participated in the study.
Two measures were used to assess competence. The Interpersonal Competence Scale—
Teacher (ICS–T) is an 18-item questionnaire using a 7-point Likert scale to assess Popularity
(many friends), Olympian/Physical Competence (athletic, attractive), Affiliative (open, friendly),
Academic (academic competence), Aggressive (argues, fights), and Internalizing (sad, shy). The
Interpersonal competence Scale—Self (ICS–S) is a 21-item questionnaire that uses a 7-point
Likert type scale producing composite scores on the same six categories. Peer interpersonal
assessments were completed by children in each classroom. They were asked to nominate
classmates who were the best examples of nine descriptive items. Items were: Cooperative,
Disruptive, Acts shy, Starts fights, Leader, Athletic, Gets in trouble, Good Student, and Cool.
Social Cognitive Maps (SCM) were used to assess social networks. Students were asked to
identify specific groups and to list as many people as they could think of that spent time with
those groups. Children identified by at least 50 percent of the group as affiliated were confirmed
as part of the group. Social centrality was calculated by combining each child’s within-group
centrality (Cw) with the centrality of his group (Cg).
Surveys were administered in the classroom in the fall and took approximately 40 minutes
to complete. Teachers completed their questionnaires in the classroom at the same time.
Configural analyses were performed to determine whether teachers identified profiles of
prosocial and antisocial behavior of popular boys. The configurations provided the following
results:


Model boys (popular prosocial)—above average on academic, affiliative, popular,
and Olympian; below average on shy, aggressive, and internalizing
Tough boys (popular antisocial)—above average on aggressive, popular, and Olympian; below average on shy and academic; average on affiliative and internalizing
IM 10 | 18

Low-academic boys (average popular)—below average on academic; above average
on affiliative; average on popular, Olympian, shy aggressive, and internalizing
 Passive boys (average popular)—above average on shy and academic; below average
on aggressive; average on popular, Olympian, affiliative, and internalizing
 Bright-antisocial boys (unpopular antisocial)—above average on aggressive, academic,
and internalizing; below average on affiliative, popular, and Olympian; average on shy
 Troubled boys (unpopular antisocial)—above average on aggressive and internalizing;
below average on academic, affiliative, popular and Olympian; average on shy
(pp. 17–18)
Chi-square analyses did not identify an association between configuration and grade.
Configurations were the same across the two research settings.
Peer nomination scores showed:




Model and tough boys were recognized as being cool and athletic.
Tough and troubled boys were identified as antisocial.
Model and passive boys were least often recognized for antisocial behavior.
Model boys received the most votes for prosocial behavior (leadership and studiousness).
Self-assessments showed the following results:




Tough boys had the highest self-evaluation of popularity.
Tough and troubled boys had the highest self-evaluations as aggressive.
Model and passive boys had the lowest self-evaluation of aggression.
Model and bright-antisocial boys had the highest self-evaluation of academic skill.
The statistical analysis showed a high correlation between teacher and peer assessments.
More European American (29 percent) than African-American (24 percent) adolescents
were model boys, though boys were over-represented by African Americans (18 percent)
compared to European Americans (9 percent). The over-representation of African Americans as
tough occurred to a greater extent in classrooms with students of both races than in classes of
African-American students alone. In both ethnic groups, the proportion of model boys was larger
than the proportion of tough boys.
Overall, model boys and tough boys were over-represented as central figures in their
classrooms and cliques. The conclusion may be that a few early adolescents can be both popular
and antisocial. Teachers, peers, and self-reports indicated consistent agreement about the
characteristics that these groups demonstrate. The authors discussed the possibility that children
make it difficult for African-American boys to be popular, academic, and prosocial without
being criticized for “acting white.” Finally, the context in which children find themselves
influences the desirability of various social behavior, even problem behavior.
IM 10 | 19
Reference
Rodkin, P. C.; Farmer, T. W.; Pearl, R., & Van Acker, R. (2000). Heterogeneity of popular boys:
antisocial and prosocial configurations. Developmental Psychology, 36, 14–24.
Article 10.2—Adolescent Peer Networks
Peer relationships between adolescents have been investigated by examining the relationships
between single factors; such as best friends, cliques, or crowds. In reality, these and other aspects of
friendship operate simultaneously to influence the adolescent. In this investigation, researchers
examined several aspects of adolescents’ networks by examining the influential effects of friendship lists, best friends, groups of friends, and social crowds.
The sample included about 3,300 students across three school systems. System 1 (752
students) was about half as large as Systems 2 (1,330 students) and 3 (1,215 students). System 1
was attended primarily by White (69 percent) and African-American (28 percent) students;
System 2 was attended primarily by African-American students (77 percent), and System 3
students were White (92 percent) and other minorities (8 percent).
Questionnaires were given to the students during class time. The questionnaires included
the following measures:



Friendship list—respondents were given a page with 10 spaces to list best friend in
school, other close friends in school, and people with whom they spend time.
Network role—the NEGOPY computer program (Richards & Rice, 1981) and
sociograms were used to help students nominate and categorize friends and group
membership.
Social crowd—20 or more students were interviewed about the characteristics of
crowds observed in each school; a crowd was included by identification of five or
more students.
The results represent outcomes in which two of the three systems demonstrated the
identified effect and used p < .01 as the criterion for significance.
The percentage of friends in school changed between schools. Adolescents appeared to
become more discriminating in naming friends with each successive grade. As grade increased,
they made fewer choices and were identified as a mutual friend less often.
Aspects of Network were assessed by looking at ethnic or gender and grade differences in
relation to networks:

Friendship list—African-American students in the minority had fewer mutual
choices, and made and received fewer choices than White students in System 1. In
System 2, African-American students as the majority had similar mutual choices,
made and received choices similarly to the Chaldean students in the minority whereas
White and other minority students had fewer selections in all three categories. Fewer
choices were made and received by older students. Female students made, received,
and demonstrated more mutual choice making than did males.
IM 10 | 20



Best friends—Females were somewhat more likely to nominate a best friend than
were male students.
Friendship groups—Minority students were less likely to be members of cliques, thus
unconnected than were majority students. Females were more likely to be clique
members than were males students. Male students were more likely to be
unconnected.
Social crowd—Five to seven crowds were identified in two of three systems. Student
membership in crowds was 32 percent in System 1 and 51 percent in System 3.
Relationships between Levels of the Network



Best friends with friendship groups and crowds—Best friends had a 92 percent to 97
percent chance of being in the same clique or group.
Relationship between friendship groups and crowds—Adolescents were members of
two or three crowds across the system. Three cliques, Popular, Jocks, and Burnouts,
had more than one friendship group within the social crowd.
Relationship between friendship list and groups and crowds—Analysis of friendship
lists in relation to clique, loose group, or crowd showed females listed the same
network roles and greater number of crowd friends more often than did male students.
In conclusion, the results support the assumption that peer networks are both complex
and multifaceted. Studying any single aspect of the friendship network in isolation gives limited
perspective of adolescent connection to peers. Ties to multiple friendship groups, for example,
give adolescents better opportunities to move from one group to another if they are rejected or
choose to do so. Further, these networks appear to be influenced by the climate of the school and
community. Thus the effects of ethnicity, grade level, and gender appear to be variable. The
influence of these variables may change as a result of the age of the adolescent and the context in
which the adolescent is assessed.
Reference
Urberg, K. A.; Degirmencioglu, S. M.; Tolson, J. M., & Halliday-Scher, K. (1995). The structure of
adolescent peer networks. Developmental Psychology, 31, 540–547.
STUDENT RESEARCH PROJECTS
Research Project 10.1—Direct Observations of Adolescents in Groups
Objective. Following completion of this project, students will be able to identify characteristic
behavior patterns that lead adolescents to achieve popular, neglected, rejected, or controversial
status with peers.
Type/Length of Activity. Variable; 8 to 10 hours.
IM 10 | 21
Directions. Choose a class member with whom you will be able to coordinate your schedule to
complete this assignment. As a team, identify a group of students that will meet at least weekly,
and is available to be observed by you, and two college students who are not members of the
group, which you will observe. Possible locations and adolescent groups for observation are
community center patrons, YMCA/YWCA participants, high school student clubs or the student
council, or church youth groups. Observers must obtain permission from setting supervisors,
high school students, and parents before beginning the project. Also consult the university or
college human rights committee to determine if further permissions are required for this
nonintervention observation activity by college students.
Begin by observing the group. Identifying behavior that might lead you to identify the
popular versus unpopular students. After the first observation, design an observation code based
on one of the sections of Chapter 10 in the area of adolescent status, friendship, Dunphy’s peer
group relations, or romance. Find the high school students before choosing the behavior. It may
be impossible to find high school students or a setting that fits your preferred topic. Choose
behavior based on the opportunities provided by the available group. Decide which observation
method discussed in Chapter 2 will document the occurrence of the behavior you identified and
will answer your questions. Consider the observation tools included in the student handouts at
the end of the Instructor’s Manual.
Observe at least weekly to collect data as high school students participate in their groups.
You may need to observe as few as three times if students behave consistently across
observations. More data become necessary with increased variability from one observation to the
next. Identify differences in types and frequency of behavior demonstrated by students in the
group. In addition to the observations, consider collecting sociometric data from all of the
students in the group. Compare the resultant behavior patterns demonstrated by each of the
students with the sociometric data.
Wrap-Up. Complete written and/or oral reports following the Publication Manual of the
American Psychological Association (2001) that summarizes the methods, results, and
conclusions from the observation and sociometric data. Be sure to include data to support your
results and conclusions. Be prepared to compare information across settings to formulate
hypotheses about context and personality as influential variables for high school student
behavior.
Research Project 10.2—Cyber Romance: Influential Factors in Online Relationships
Objectives. Students will apply developmental concepts to online dating scenarios.
Type/Length of Activity. Internet research and reaction paper; approximately 3 hours.
Directions. First, browse the following web sites:


The Internet Personals http://www.montagar.com/personals
One and Only Online Matching http://www.oneandonly.com/
IM 10 | 22

American Singles.com http://www.americansingles.com
Then answer the following questions:
1.
What personal characteristics would you choose to investigate as criteria for selecting a
partner for a serious relationship?
2.
Explain why these characteristics would be important to you.
3.
Would specific characteristics differ if you wanted to develop a friendship, find a date, or
develop a long-term relationship? If so, how?
4.
How does delineating your qualifications for a partner in a personal advertisement relate to
your own expectations or definition of a relationship?
5.
How do you account for or explain the number of online romances that seem to have
developed in recent years?
Write a reaction paper to compare and contrast your expectations about establishing
personal relationships with those assumptions that are the premise for entering into cyber
romances.
Wrap-Up. Discuss your conclusions in class and determine the degree of agreement you have
with your peers. How might you explain similarities and differences in you conclusion?
Reference
Skinner, P. J., & Clark, W. M. (2001). Instructor’s manual to accompany Human Development (8th ed.)
by D. E. Papalia, S. W. Olds, & R. D. Feldman. Boston: McGraw-Hill
ESSAY QUESTIONS
Provide students with the guidelines for “Answering Essay Questions” before they respond to
these questions. Their answers to these types of questions demonstrate an ability to comprehend
and apply ideas discussed in this chapter.
1.
Summarize what we know about conformity throughout adolescence, and evaluate the
positive and negative impacts conformity may have on adolescent social development.
2.
What are the similarities and differences between adolescents identified as popular,
neglected, rejected, and controversial children? What experiences would youths from each
group have during adolescence?
IM 10 | 23
3.
List and explain how factors associated with social cognition and emotional regulation
influence peer relations. What does current research suggest to improve social skills based
on these factors?
4.
What are the functions of friendship? What theory and/or data in Chapter 10 explain or
illustrate these functions?
5.
Do mixed-age friendships promote or discourage positive developmental outcomes? Cite
relevant data in your answer.
6.
How do children’s groups differ from adolescents’ groups, and how do adolescent cliques
differ from adolescent crowds?
7.
Describe ethnic and cultural variations in adolescent peer groups, and trace implications for
educators or other professionals interested in intervening in ethnic adolescent peer
relations.
8.
Describe the characteristics of youth organizations and explain how they benefit youth
development.
9.
Compare and contrast friendship and romance among adolescents. Cite relevant data that
distinguish between early and later relationships.
10.
What characterizes romantic love? Describe the influence of family relationships, typical
adolescent emotions, and peer relations in romantic relationships.
References
Holland, A., & Andre, T. (1999). Student characteristics and choice of high school remembrance role.
Adolescence, 34, 315–338.
Patrick, H.; Ryan, A. M.; Alfeld-Liro, C.; Fredricks, J. A.; Hruda, L. Z., & Eccles, J. S. (1999).
Adolescents’ commitment to developing talent: The role of peers in continuing motivation for sports
and arts. Journal of Youth Adolescence, 28, 741.
Sheridan, S. M.; Hungelmann, A., & Maughan, D. P. (1999). A contextualized framework for social skills
assessment, intervention, and generalization. School Psychology Review, 28, 84–103.
VIDEOS
Views on Family and Peers at Age 15 (VAD)
Overview
Two 15-year-old White females and one 15-year-old multicultural female discuss what is most
important to them in their lives right now. All say family and friends, although Shena admits that
her friends are much more important to her than her family.
IM 10 | 24
Pre-Test
1. What is one of the developmental changes that occur during adolescence in terms of peers.
a. Adolescents spend more time with their peers compared to younger children.
Correct. Adolescents spend more than twice as much time with their peers than with their
parents on the weekends.
b. Adolescents prefer to spend time by themselves versus spending time with their peers.
Incorrect. Social isolation is associated with problem behaviors such as delinquency.
c. Peer relations have a negative effect on adolescent development.
Incorrect. Peer relations can be negative if an adolescent is rejected by peers; however, most
peer relations are positive, with increasing self-esteem and social skills.
d. Peer relationships are completely unimportant in adolescence.
Incorrect. Peer relationships are important for self-esteem, developing social skills, and getting
emotional and social support outside of the family.
Post-Test
1. What is most important to these girls? Themselves? Family? or Friends?
a. Themselves
Incorrect. They do believe it is important to recognize their own needs but they agree that family
and friends are important as well.
b. Friends.
Incorrect. They do acknowledge that peers are very important they also agree that their family is
important.
c. Family.
Incorrect. They do acknowledge family is important but, they agree that friends are important
too.
d. Family, friends, and themselves.
Correct. They believe all three are important.
Talking about Cliques at Age 15 (VAD)
Overview
Two 15 year-old White females and one 15 year-old multicultural female describe the cliques in
their school and what makes someone popular. They describe not only physical appearance as
important, but personality too.
Pre-Test
1. What is a clique?
a. A clique is a small group of adolescents who form a group because they engage in
similar activities.
Correct. It is a group of about 5–6 adolescents, usually the same sex and age who share the same
interests.
b. A large group of adolescents who engage in similar activities and have a reputation
surrounding that activity.
Incorrect. This is the definition of a crowd.
c. A group of adolescents who hang around with each other because they live in the same
neighborhood.
IM 10 | 25
Incorrect. Cliques form because the adolescents engage in similar activities.
d. A clique is a group of mixed-sex adolescents who may vary widely in age.
Incorrect. Members of a clique are usually the same sex and are similar in age.
Post-Test
1. According to the girls in the video, what makes someone popular?
a. good looks
Incorrect. Although they did mention that some popular kids are good looking, not all of the
popular kids are good looking.
b. going along with the crowd
Incorrect. The girls agree that being independent is important to being popular.
c. intelligence.
Incorrect. They did not mention intelligence as important to popularity.
d. personality
Correct. These girls agree that a good personality is most important when it comes to being
popular.
15-year-old Girls’ Relationship with Boys (VAD)
Overview
Two 15 year-old White females and one 15 year-old multicultural female talk about how their
relationships with boys have changed since middle school. They discuss how boys are more
mature in high school and are often easier to talk to than girls.
Pre-test
1. Which of the following is a NOT function of dating during adolescence?
a. recreation.
Incorrect. Adolescents see dating as a source of enjoyment.
b. finding a marriage partner.
Correct. Dating in adolescence is a way to explore intimacy and can be a context for sexual
exploration.
c. socialization
Incorrect. Dating teaches adolescents how to get along with others.
d. source of status
Incorrect. Adolescents, as part of the social comparison process, evaluate the statues of the
people their peers date.
Post-Test
1. How have relationships with boys changed for these girls now that they are in high school?
a. They spend a lot less time with boys now that they are in high school.
Incorrect. These girls indicate that they spend more time with boys now that they are in high
school.
b. Although they spend more time with boys, the are afraid to talk with them about their
problems.
Incorrect. These girls say that it is sometimes easier to talk with the boys about their problems
than it is to talk with another girl.
IM 10 | 26
c. Although they have relationships with boys now, they feel the boys are much more
immature than they are.
Incorrect. These girls feel that boys are more mature in high school compared to junior high.
d. They spend more time with boys, more time alone with boys, and more time talking
about problems and issues with boys.
Correct. They are spending more time with boys and are more comfortable disclosing
information with boys.
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