WRITING FORMAL REPORTS©
Copyright by James C. Ballard, 1992
The Department of Engineering and Policy
Washington University, Campus Box 1106
One Brookings Drive
St. Louis, MO 63130
1.0 OUTLINING AND ORGANIZING
"Do I really have to? Really?"
The nasty rumors you have heard are true. Some professional technical writers can occasionally get by
without first writing outlines for organizing their reports. Also, some singers undeniably have perfect pitch.
But as an engineer, you seldom sing the way a professional technical writer does: you don't organize,
compose, and edit every day. Instead, you are a technical or managerial person who must write clearly on
occasion to advance in your profession. For you, outlining a report is a recurring, tedious, and largely
unavoidable chore. Like balancing your checkbook, it just can't be skipped without risk.
Engineers and Poets
Do you absolutely have to outline every report? Maybe not. Perhaps you are one of those seemingly
gifted folks who can write by the "marination" method, submerging yourself completely in the subject,
turning it over and over in your head, and then organizing and writing the report with no apparent effort.
Perhaps so, but don't count on it. To begin with, this is an old romantic notion: the superiority of inspiration
over mere diligence. A look at the false starts discarded in the artist's wastebasket usually dispels the notion
of some uncanny intellectual performance.
Protesting the drudgery of anything so mundane as an outline, marination folks may claim they can
write their best only when against a deadline or under special pressure. This poetic idea -- art forged under
extremity; the poet starving in a garret; the programmer hacking brilliantly despite exhaustion -- can exert a
powerful hold. But be warned: skillful managers quickly learn to exploit this temperamental claim by
simply contriving fake deadlines and creating artificial pressures.
Yes, you really do . . .
Setting artistic temperament aside, there are three more substantial pressures that argue strongly for the
value of outlining:

First, engineering projects seldom afford time for marination.

Second, engineering data for ongoing projects is constantly being revised, and yet must be
reported in a stable framework.

Third, engineers work in collaborative groups, within and among companies. Reporting and
disseminating information in alliances requires early, active, and thoughtful organization.
So, distasteful as it may seem, most engineering writers still have to fall back on written plans -- on
outlining -- "formal" enough to see them through the report. By making an outline, even a messy outline,
you can

find the best place to begin

segment the logical steps of an argument or factual description

spot weak points where more information or further development is needed
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
evaluate, at an early stage, whether the importance of particular data is major, minor, or
somewhere in between

spot opportunities for combining closely related ideas

break down a big project into units to be written one at a time

coordinate your work with the work of other contributors

create an intellectual framework that others can build on or complete later
Natural and Unnatural Acts
When you outline, you begin by looking at a large collection of information. You then try to find
"natural" patterns or to impose "logical" (unnatural) ones. Sometimes the information suggests an obvious
pattern, sometimes not. And irritatingly, sometimes the seemingly obvious pattern proves not the best.
Natural patterns you can use in organizing and outlining include

following a chronological sequence of events

tracing a geographic or spatial relationship

following a sequence of motion or flow

grouping by similar characteristics

following an order of performance steps

relating cause and effect

tracing a cycle
Some logical patterns you can use to organize information include

rank ordering by relative importance

eliminating competing alternatives

moving from the simple to the complex, or from the known to the unknown

presenting pros and cons

employing deductive logic (moving from the general to the particular)

employing inductive logic (moving from the particular to the general)

imposing accepted artificial patterns, such as alphabetical order, geographic region, source of
supply, and so on
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When you make an outline and then flesh it out into an effective report, you will use the patterns singly
and in overlapping combinations: most reports can be organized in two or more ways. You will know you
are an accomplished writer when you can not only maintain one pattern clearly, but also support two
effective patterns without diminishing either.
Outlines can have various forms, depending on how extensive the report is and how many people are
involved in writing it. For short reports, a sketchy arrangement of dashes marking each idea, with
indentation to show the idea's rank, may be perfectly adequate. Entries might be phrases rather than
completely formed sentences. For more complex subjects, if the old system of indents, Roman and Arabic
numbers, and upper and lower case letters still works for you, then use it (for example, I.A.1.a).
But the number-decimal-number system will generally prove easier to expand and contract, and also
generates computer-retrievable section and subsection numbers (such as 1.2.3.4).
2.0 THE TRANSMITTAL
"Stand up straight! Don't mumble! Smile!"
If a transmittal message, even a very short one, is going outside the company, format it as a full dress
formal letter. For reports circulating only within the company, memo format is fine.
The transmittal may be the last item you write, but it is the first item most readers see. So make it
perfect. Verify the spelling of names. Scrutinize your wording and tact. Recheck your numerical accuracy,
grammar, and punctuation. Consider the overall tone of the letter, the connotations of its words, and the
degree of its egocentricity. It is both unfair and foolish to expect either the WP keyboard operator or some
error-checking program to catch problems in these areas.
Traditional Functions, Early Opportunities
Traditionally, a letter of transmittal creates a formal record that a particular report actually was posted
on the date of the letter to the letter's addressee by the letter's signer. To satisfy this recording function, you
must say several things in the letter, and should consider saying others. For example, you must

date the letter with the true day of posting

address the letter to the recipient stipulated in the contract for the work

identify the report by quoting its full title

state why you are sending the report (an obvious reason is work phase completion or contractual
fulfillment)
But why quit now? After the recording function has been satisfied, the transmittal offers you the earliest
chance to

briefly describe the purpose and scope of the report

preview the report's findings, especially when they are pleasant
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
acknowledge help that you have received

tactfully allude to limitations imposed on the report by money and time

estimate, when you can confidently do so, the probable success or usefulness of the report

recommend further work

offer to be of assistance in the future
The transmittal is a valuable opportunity to tailor the report to the reader, not a perfunctory attachment.
Consider, then, adding to your letter statements which:

emphasize parts of the report that are of special interest to a specific reader.
Depending on what you think a given reader's chief concerns are, you might draw attention to mechanical,
chemical, architectural, geotechnical, environmental, managerial, financial, legal, or other matters. Your
transmittal can do this by citing particular page numbers and quoting section headings or salient passages.
If the report will have several distinct primary readers, you will be wise to compose a slightly different letter
of transmittal for the copy of the report each will receive, emphasizing their particular area of interest.
The letter of transmittal should sound formal, but not be stuffy or full of clichés. Don't confine yourself
to the third person, speaking only as an "it." Use "you" and "your," and use them even more than you use
"I", "we", and "our." Try to sound like one interested person writing to another interested person.
The letter of transmittal is customarily sent with the report, either removably fastened to the outside
front cover, or bound inside the report, after the title page and before the table of contents.
3.0 THE SUMMARY
Directing Traffic in a Hurry
What are readers looking for in a summary? Basically, they want to learn whether to skip the report,
route the report to someone else in their organization, or read all or part of the report themselves. To make
this decision easy, the summary should

stand alone

be concise

avoid needless technical language

convey the essentials of the report, including its topic, reason for being written, scope, and major
conclusions and recommendations
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Summaries are intended for people in a hurry. These people routinely expect to skip or route much of
what lands on their desk or screen, and to read the rest selectively. Therefore summaries have to represent
quite honestly the contents of the report-- they must never mislead by omission, by disproportionate
emphasis, or by any of the other ways we hide (or hide from) the facts.
“OK, it was Colonel Mustard! In the study, with the lead pipe."
Give specific information. Except in special circumstances, a technical report is not a teasing murder
mystery, in which whodunit or how-it-happened is hinted at along the way and fully revealed only at the
end. Until you fully accept the idea that a summary is meant to enable some readers to skip or reroute your
report, there is a temptation to summarize generally rather than specifically. "Criteria were determined,
tests were conducted, and results found are tabulated in this report." There’s precious little concrete
information here: all I know is that you kept busy. And I would still have to read further to know whether
to skip, route, or study the report.
Instead, specify the crucial criteria, name the decisive tests, and detail the major results. While you are
in this no-nonsense mood, go on and tell the implications for action or policy. If these implications are
paramount, and your readers are decision makers, use the flattering name "Executive Summary."
Abstracts
The most compressed summary of all is the abstract, which sometimes fits right on the title page itself.
Notoriously hard to write, abstracts may require a proud author to squeeze months of work and hundreds of
report pages into 200 or fewer words. Fortunately, such concision is rarely required unless the report will be
published, held in libraries, and entered into bibliographic databases.
4.0 THE INTRODUCTION
Stealing a pyramid?
Reading a technical report can be like stealing an Egyptian pyramid to ship to some Midwestern theme
park. You have to start at the top, and disassemble the thing in successive layers. Ideally, before your
readers get to the introduction, they have dutifully worked down through the letter of transmittal, the title
page, the table of contents, the list of figures, and the summary. Such methodical readers earn their reward:
they already can predict a lot about the organization and outcome of the report. This docile behavior should
be fostered wherever possible, so write the prefatory sections with thoughtful care.
Of course, people can be jerks.
Well, sure, people can be disorderly, unpredictable, and even downright contrary. They reshelve library
books out of order; they jump the line at salad bars. To accommodate these unruly readers, you must do
something psychologically difficult. You must put the carefully crafted preceding sections of your report
out of your mind and start anew.
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Imagine that your sole remaining reader is a new corporate officer who capriciously has skipped what
came before. The layers of information now have a whole new starting point. For this reader, the
introduction is the formal beginning of the report. It must set the stage carefully and completely. It's also
got to do this without witlessly repeating verbatim the stuff you just "forgot" about in the transmittal, table
of contents, and summary.
Four Things Every Introduction Must Do
Every introduction, whether for docile or disorderly readers, must convey clearly at least four messages:

the problem or topic addressed by the report

the purpose of the report

the scope of the report

the report's plan of discussion
Problem Statement
The problem or topic of the report should have already been clearly stated on the title page and in the
summary. Verify this, and then forget it -- you're starting over, remember? Begin your introduction on a
new page, and

either place the full title of the report at the top of the page, and put the major section heading
"Introduction" below, or

head the new page with "Introduction," and restate the full title of the report in the first sentence of
the text
In the introduction, you should amplify, clarify, or qualify the title if it needs such help. If the title needs
much help, then re-think the title. One clue might be that reports generally answer questions. Think about
phrasing the title as a question, not an answer.
Purpose Statement
The purpose of the report may be single and obvious to all concerned, or the report may have several
purposes, some of which are subtle. Virtually every report seeks to persuade. The persuasion might be that
the investigators are indeed competent, that they understood the needs of the reader who commissioned the
report, that they employed proper engineering techniques, and so on. Other purposes of the report might be
simply to document findings for the historical record, to define situations for further inquiry, to detail
alternative courses of action, to explain a conceptual design, or to advocate a position or course of action.
Remember, in one way or another, the purpose of most reports is persuasion.
Always remember the persuasive component. You don't have to exaggerate or write a sales brochure.
But if you fail to reflect your own and your company's true ability and expertise, you do yourself, your
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employer, and your reader a disservice.
Like summaries, introductions often face the strategic question of how fully they should reveal the
conclusion. When the findings of the report are not unexpected or controversial, your purpose can be stated
directly: "This report explains how the Acme Company can computerize its inventory and ordertracking systems for less money than currently budgeted." But when the findings of the report are either
unpleasant or complexly derived, the purpose statement of your introduction may be more persuasive if
stated in neutral terms which permit the conclusion to evolve as the report itself unfolds: "This report
analyzes why all the water ran out of Lake Michigan, and where potential responsibility may lie."
Generally, direct statements of purpose are preferred. But a neutral statement of purpose is not
automatically misleading to your reader or client. They have paid you -- in salary or fees -- for your
professional advice. You've done the technical work, and arrived at your best answer. A neutral statement
of purpose, one that does not foreshadow the discussion and conclusions, is a valid way of persuading
readers, in their own interest, that your answer is indeed the best. Don't get cute with this strategy, though -there is a distinct ethical difference between "neutral" and "evasive."
Scope Statement
To define the scope of a report, try breaking it down into categories of people, money, time, materials,
codes, contractual stipulations, procedures and equipment employed, authorizations, sources of information,
and geographic limitations. Try to think in terms of both the factors involved in producing the report and the
factors that may change as a result of the report. "This appraisal of the construction management
practices of the Bozo Corporation on the Lake Michigan Rehydration Project represents the combined
efforts of two chimpanzees for a day and a half, at a cost of $15/day. Despite the humbleness of
this effort, the chimps think we ought to sue Bozo for $200 million." Don't get lost in detail when you
write the scope statement: judge what your readers need, and prune the rest.
Plan of Discussion Statement
The plan of discussion is usually set forth near the end of the introduction. It is generally something like
"This report is divided into eight sections: . . . ." or "The report begins with a discussion of . . ., and
then questions whether . . . ." The plan of discussion has already been strongly hinted at in the table of
contents, and that's just the way it should be; don't worry that you've given away a secret.
Optional stuff: Think it over.
The problem, purpose, scope, and plan statements must be in an introduction, but there are other things
that might well be included on occasion. Depending on your readers, a history of the project, a glossary of
terms, a list of symbols, or a theory review might be desirable. If these or other helpful introductory sections
are long, then put them under their own separate label so that knowledgeable readers can detour around
them. Locate such separate sections either in the appendices (with a suitable reference in the introduction)
or just after the introduction and before the discussion.
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Advice I Didn’t Want to Give in the Beginning
Delay writing the introduction until after you have written the discussion and conclusions. Otherwise
you are taunting those gods who cause things to turn out differently from what you planned.
5.0 THE DISCUSSION SECTION
A Curious Taciturnity
Books that are full of advice about most aspects of report writing usually have few words to say about
the longest part of the report, the discussion section. The reason is probably that discussion sections vary
widely, depending on the report's audience, subject, scope, and purpose. Some obvious generalizations
about the discussion section are these:

In this section you can feel free to use technical language for technical subjects.

Most discussion sections are either generally informative or generally interpretative (although
some are both).

Long discussion sections should begin with an overview segment that suggests the section's
conclusion.

Long or difficult discussion sections should conclude with an interim summary statement

In the hands of a skillful writer, discussions can have a plot and can use -- carefully -- some of the
techniques of storytelling to hold the reader's interest.
Think Before You Commit To A Pattern
The discussion section of your report will probably use one or more of the organizing patterns discussed
in Section 1.0, "Outlining and Organizing." Some points to consider are

Time sequence is a simple pattern, but tends to weight events equally. You must develop their
significance and supply correct emphasis.

Geographic organization is usually valid at only one site, though this might not matter for a single
report's purposes.

Following a sequence of motion or flow works best when here aren't many deviations from that
sequence. Otherwise you can spend a lot of time and divert a lot of the reader's attention in
explaining differences.

Don't force a grouping by similar characteristics when characteristics aren't really that similar.
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
Listing performance steps is characteristic of operator manuals. But are your readers operators, or
managers of operators?

In "sciences" that aren't highly quantified, cause and effect may be elusive. Ask any honest
economist.

Tracing a cycle presumes that you know where to start tracing the cycle.

Rank ordering must be done from the readers' perspective, not yours. What's important to them?

When moving from the simple to the complex, make sure the simple is simple for all readers.
Otherwise you'll lose somebody, and they'll be sure to resent it.
Special Tactics for Feasibility Reports
Feasibility reports are commonly organized by eliminating competing alternatives. But the writer gets to
decide which alternatives come first, and which last, and to determine the presentation sequence of criteria
for evaluating all the alternatives. You get to make persuasive choices. Basically, you can present
contending alternatives (vendors, machines, processes, people, locations, etc.). Structure your discussion
either by alternatives:
Alternative A: Move to Colorado
Criterion One: Can I get a job there?
Criterion Two: What is life like there?
Criterion Three: Will I live there forever?
Alternative B: Move to New Jersey
Criterion One: . . . (etc.)
or structure it by criteria:
Criterion One: Where Can I Get a Job?
Alternative A: Colorado?
Alternative B: New Jersey?
Alternative C: St. Louis?
Criterion Two: What is life like in
Alternative A: Colorado?
Alternative B: New Jersey?
Alternative C: St. Louis?
If one alternative is notably deficient, then dispose of it early on. Think of your criteria as hurdles in a
race, and put the hurdle that the weakest runner can't leap at the beginning. The early elimination of noncontenders will let the reader concentrate on those still in the race. If all of the contending alternatives can
stagger over the hurdles imposed by the criteria, then the reader can't readily tell who's ahead. So
summarize as you go; give a running score or split times. If no clear winner emerges, reconsider whether
the study demands a single answer, or could succeed by identifying several equivalent answers.
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6.0 CONCLUSIONS
Closing the Deal
Conclusions (and recommendations) are the ultimate reasons we get paid to make studies and write
reports. In such a crucial section, the worst that can happen is for readers to be surprised by a conclusion, or
to misunderstand a conclusion, or to remain unconvinced that the evidence given supports a conclusion. The
reader is the ultimate judge, and in any of these cases the judge is likely to decide that the study -- or more
probably the written report of the study -- is at fault.
To avoid a conclusion that takes the reader by surprise

be sure to provide in the discussion enough information and reasoning to support each specific
conclusion

make sure that the conclusion is based only on the information and reasoning you have supplied

never introduce new evidence or data in the conclusion section itself
Helping Readers to Understand
To help readers understand the nature and significance of a conclusion

state your conclusions in decreasing order, from most important to least important

state conclusions as clearly and directly as tact permits (remember that tact is a matter of style, not
substance)

avoid overstatement, understatement, over-optimism, and undue pessimism

be sure the discussion has dealt adequately with any evidence opposed to your conclusion

clearly identify conclusions based on limited evidence

don't pass off opinions, based on subjective and personal experience, as empirical or objective
conclusions

help readers to offset their human tendency to see only what they expected to see, or to see only the
good news
How Writers Fail
When readers are unconvinced by a valid conclusion, we have failed them, as writers and as engineers.
Looking back, we may see obvious reasons -- shaky numbers, other insufficient evidence or information, or
inadequately clear reasoning. Or the problem may be psychological -- none of us like to change our minds,
or to hear bad news. Assuming you are an accomplished report writer who has supplied sufficient evidence
and reasoned clearly, then your remaining obligations to your reader are to
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
state negative conclusions forthrightly

make negative or controversial conclusions easier to accept by preceding them with a factual
summary.
Conclusions can be stated in a prose paragraph or two, or in a numbered list. If your conclusions are few
and obvious, use the paragraph. Use the numbered list if you have more than four or five conclusions. Don't
be afraid to say "I" and "We" and "Company Name" wherever appropriate. Disembodied corporate
utterances such as "It is concluded that . . . " are not more objective than first person statements, and can
leave the reader wondering just who really did the concluding.
7.0 RECOMMENDATIONS
Absolutely No Surprises Here
Most of what has been said about conclusions also applies to recommendations. By the time readers get
to recommendations, there should be no surprises, because the recommendations have been solidly grounded
in the facts and reasoning of the discussion and conclusion sections. In cases where your report is formatted
to assist busy readers, and places its conclusions and recommendations sections immediately after the
summary and introduction, then these two sections, along with the conclusions, must establish the grounds
for the recommendations.
Nothing is new in the recommendations section: no new data, no new concepts, no late-surfacing
arguments. In fact, there are no supporting statements presented at all in this section, since the support has
already been given in the previous sections.
Paragraph or List Form?
Recommendations should be in paragraph form if the conclusions were in paragraph form, and in a list if
the conclusions were in a list. You may read or be told that there should be one recommendation for every
conclusion: such a rule, if you care to follow it, would ensure that no conclusion is abandoned, and that each
recommendation flows logically from a conclusion. Most reports, though, don't aspire to such tidy
symmetry, and settle instead for statements such as "Because of conclusions C,D, and E, we recommend that
Canada be hired to put all the water back in Lake Michigan."
The wording of recommendations should be strong and clear--you want somebody to do something. If
you must make a recommendation qualified or contingent, do so and don't beat around the bush. You may
not feel comfortable with them, but first person subjects such as "We" and "The XYZ Corporation" are more
direct and easier to understand than remote, impersonal, and passive constructions such as "It is
recommended that . . . ."
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8.0 APPENDIXES
Shortcomings of the Top-down Pyramid Model Revealed
All too often, the top-down layers of the pyramidally constructed (and de-constructed) report are not
read in the sequence intended. And sometimes, some of them are not read at all. If all readers would
solemnly and docilely vow to approach our reports as if they were novels, starting on the first page and
reading right on through to the end, then appendixes might be dispensed with. But in practice few readers
work through all the sections of a report in sequence -- they simply don't have the need, interest, or time to
read every word. Reports are treated like dictionaries, not novels: people selectively look up what interests
them. By far the most frequently read sections are the summary, introduction, and conclusions. Appendixes
languish unread, since most readers do not require the detailed, extensive, and subordinate information they
contain. And that's as it should be.
To Append, or to Include?
Nonetheless, appendixes are not just a place to dump miscellaneous data and exhibits. They are an
invaluable means of channeling information to interested readers while streamlining the report for the rest of
the audience. Before consigning material to an appendix, though, carefully consider whether that material,
in whole or part, might commonly be needed to fully understand the discussion segment. If it's needed, it
belongs in the discussion.
Sometimes the decision to create an appendix is easy -- long program listings or bulky charts make a
report hard to handle unless they are appended. But usually the decision depends on your assessment of who
is reading the report, and why, and what's important to them. Sometimes you can hedge your decision.
Select either the most significant example or a representative example of the material you are appending,
and place it in the discussion. The reader is them equipped to decide whether to turn to the appendix to see
the rest.
Candidates for appendixes
The following is a far-from-exhaustive list of the sorts of material that might be relegated to an
appendix:

large data tables

extensive calculations

copies of correspondence

gate-folded exhibits

photographs

site plans and large blueprints
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
schematics

CPM charts

long quotations and depositions

resumes and lists of personnel
There is theoretically no limit to the number of separate appendixes you may create, but each must be a
self-contained section with its own title and unique number in the table of contents. All appendixes must be
referred to at least once somewhere in the text of the report, and they are listed in the table of contents in the
order they are first referred to. Their page numbering may be continuous with that of the report, or, more
flexibly, each appendix may be assigned a letter, and the pages in that appendix numbered starting with "1."
This latter approach would produce table of contents entries such as "Appendix A: Spectrographic
Analysis of All the Water that Ran out of Lake Michigan" and list the pages as A1-A12.
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