TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………….…… 1
Statement of the Problem……………………………………………………..…..2
Purpose of the Study ………………………………………………………..…....4
Research Questions…………………………………………………….………....5
Theoretical Framework………………………………………………………..….5
Limitations and Delimitations of the Study …………………….…………….….8
Significance of the Study …………………………………………………….…..9
2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE…………………………………………….....10
Introduction……………………………………………………………………....10
Historical View of Special Education in America……………………………….10
Presidential Proclamation on Special Education………………………………...13
African American Males in Special Education………………………………..…13
The Importance of the Special Education Referral……………………………....14
The Referral Process- Intervention versus Placement…………………………...17
Intervention Programs to Reduce Special Education Referrals……………….....19
Theoretical Perspectives of Underachievement of African-American Males…...21
Stereotype Threat………………………………………………………………...22
Cultural-Ecological Perspective………………………………………………....23
Cool Pose……………………………………………………………………...…24
Perceptions of the Movement Styles of African American Males…………..…..24
3. METHOD……………………………………………………………..……...….26
Research Design………………………………………………………..………..26
Procedure………………………………………………………………………...27
Sample ………………………………………………………………………..…28
Instrumentation…….……………………………………………………..……...29
Data Analysis and Findings………………………………………………….…..29
4. RESULTS……………………………………………………..………………....27
5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS………………………..………………......29
6. REFERENCES…………………………………………….………………….…41
7. APPENDICES……………………………………………..……………...……..46
A. INTERVIEW PROTOCOL….………………….…..…………………….….46
B. CONSENT TO INTERVIEW….…………..………….……...………………48
C. PERMISSION TO AUDIOTAPE…………………..……………………..….49
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
INTRODUCTION
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
In 2000, the United States Department of Education (USDE) reported that 3.9
million children, in grades kindergarten through twelfth grade, were eligible for and
received special education services. The vast majority of these children, some 2.8 million
were classified as having a specific learning disability, 647,000 were identified with
mental retardation, and 438,000 were classified with an emotional disturbance.
African-American public school students were disproportionately represented in
each of the three disability categories identified above. According to the United States
Department of Education Condition of Education Report, 2004, African-American public
school students made up 33 percent of mentally retarded children, 27 percent of children
with an emotional disturbance, and 18 percent of children with a specific learning
disability. While African-American children represented 17 percent of public school
students in 2000, they made up 22 percent of all children classified with one of the three
disabilities listed above. Overall, African-American and Native American children were
both overrepresented in this disabled population. In contrast, only 8 percent of Caucasian
and all Latino children combined, as well as 3 percent of Asian/Pacific Islander children
comprise the remainder of the special education/ disabled population.
The Condition of Education 2004 report provided detailed gender specific
statistics. The report highlighted that male students were twice as likely as female
students to be classified as having one of the aforementioned disabilities (11 percent of
males versus 6 percent of females were identified). Specifically, 78 percent of male
2
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
students had an emotional disturbance, 67 percent a specific learning disability, and 58
percent were labeled with mental retardation. The representation of African-American
students in these special education placement statistics offers insight into a staggering
disparity of educational equality between these students and their non-ethnic
counterparts.
Research trends and outcomes from the past decade persistently identify the
culprit of this disparity to include the following factors: procedural aspects of testing and
placement, ethnic and cultural differences, lack of parental involvement, teacher
qualifications and inadequate training, poverty, and the overall failure of schools to
effectively educate African-American students (Herrera, 1998, p.8).
The foundation and design of this study will document and examine the
perspectives and perceptions of teachers’ regarding the nature of the disparity of AfricanAmerican students in these placements.
The potential benefit of this study will be to address the existing gap in the
research regarding the overrepresentation of African-American males in special
education placements.
The existing research, including the work of Claude Steele (1997), Majors &
Billson (1992), and John Ogbu (1997) each address the influence of poverty, societal
stereotypes, and the cultural incompetence of educators and the educational system as
contributing factors towards the sub-standard performance of African-American males in
the educational arena.
Preparation for this study highlighted a void in existing research including the
following: (1) comprehensive, in-depth examination of teachers’ perceptions of African-
3
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
American males, (2) teachers’ perspectives and perceptions regarding the demeanor and
mannerisms of these African-American males, and (3) the influence that these
perceptions have on the referral for special education placement.
The examination of teachers’ perceptions of African-American male students is
relevant and influential towards closing the achievement gap for this population. The
belief that teacher actions and practices may contribute to the disparity in the educational
success and achievements of the African-American male student, provides further
grounding for this study. As educators’ harness the ultimate responsibility of rectifying
and ameliorating this problem, their insight and perspectives could prove invaluable
towards this disparity.
THE PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of the study is to examine teachers’ perceptions of the
overrepresentation of African-American male students in special education placements.
The focus of the study will be to identify and highlight teachers’ perceptions regarding
the influence of race and culture in the following areas: the referral process, identification
of special needs students, and representation of African-American males in these
placements. Independent teacher reporting will provide the validation of existing
perceptions, beliefs and related practices regarding African-American males in these
placements.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The questions listed below will direct the data collection and analysis:
4
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
1) Is there a notable theme in teachers’ perceptions of the movement styles of
African-American males in relation to perceived aggression, based on race?
2) What are teacher's perceptions regarding the influence of race and culture in the
following areas: identification of special needs students, grounding for the initial
referral for special education services, and the identification of who is responsible
for the overrepresentation of African-American males in these placements.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The interpretation and understanding of the precipitating factors which influence
teachers’ to refer African-American males for special education services has begun to
garnish heightened exploratory attention. Without question to the existence of the
overrepresentation of African-American male students in special education placements,
several theorists have developed substantial literature to address possible contributing
factors leading the actual referral for service. The underlying tone infused throughout the
theories examined addresses the demeanor, mannerisms, and social skills of AfricanAmerican male children. These factors, when examined in comparison to the attributes of
their White, middle-class, culturally assimilated peers, will likely affect and influence
their teachers’ perceptions of African-American males student’s and their subsequent
success in the classroom.
The influence of the perceived physical presence and demeanor of the AfricanAmerican male has a weighted significance in American society and ultimately the
educational setting. In American society, the persistence of stereotypes afforded to
African-American males is so strong that these belief systems ultimately have an impact
and infiltrate the walls of the classrooms. Butler (1997) focused attention on this issue
5
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
and developed the theory which examined the perceived influence and relevance of the
physical and attitudinal demeanor, mannerisms, and social skills of African-American
males in an educational setting. The writer’s belief was that the influence of these factors
would adversely influence and inhibit the progress and success of the African-American
male in an educational setting. Butler’s presentation of this perception enlisted the
theoretical framework of the work of several of his peers to enhance his stance and focus.
The onset of this presentation introduced Gresham’s (1983) dissection of social
competence. Social competence was identified to include social skills and adaptive
behavior competencies, including interpersonal interactions and social acceptance. Each
of these listed factors have significant weight and grounding relative to an individuals
ability to maneuver successfully in society. These same skills and abilities are applicable
to the classroom environment. This introduction was expanded to enhance the theory
which Gresham, Elliot, and Black (1987) presented which claims that children with
deficits in appropriate social skill presentations could encounter “long term negative”
consequences related to their social and emotional well being in school.
The consideration of teachers’ perceptions of African-American male students has
received some attention in research. Willis (1989) has suggested that teacher’s
perceptions of minority students’ behaviors, particularly those African-American males,
are more likely to be interpreted as “being more aggressive and generally lacking
acceptable characteristics, social skills, or behavior to be successful.”
Majors and Billson (1992) further substantiate the importance and
influence teachers’ preconceived notions and existing perceptions relative to AfricanAmerican males movement styles. Their research, which examined, recorded and
6
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
categorized the movement styles of African-American males, highlighted the dangers
abound resulting from the misinterpretation of these characteristics. The specifics of their
research entailed that the cool pose “allows the Black male to survive by projecting a
front of emtionlessness, fearlessness, and aloofness that counters inner pain from
damaged pride, poor self-confidence, and fragile social competence that comes from
being part of a subjugated group.” This behavior and demeanor reflect a “ritualized form
of masculinity that allows that boy or man to cope and survive in an environment of
social oppression and racism” (p. 48). This movement style is characterized and
portrayed by African-American males and is detailed by “a ritualized form of masculinity
that entails behaviors, scripts, physical posturing, impression management, and carefully
crafted performances that deliver a single, critical message: pride, strength, and control”
(p.4).
Majors and Billson (1992) ascertain that African-American male students are
subjected to more frequent and lengthier out-of-school suspensions, to be placed in
remedial courses, and be assigned to special education classes for the mentally retarded
and learning disabled.
The potential ramifications of teachers’ perceptions about the movement styles of
African-American male students, are significant. The consideration of these perceptions,
as related to the educational process is crucial. Neal, McCray, Webb-Johnson, and
Bridgest (2003) present that “teachers’ misunderstandings of and reactions to students’
culturally conditioned behaviors can lead to school and social failure.” These writers’
also reference additional research which indicates that “teachers’ perceptions and lack of
7
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
cultural responsiveness can result in student psychological discomfort and low
achievement and in social and academic failure” (p.2).
LIMITATIONS AND DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
This research study, conducted to examine teachers’ perceptions of the
overrepresentation of African American males in special education, will utilize a
qualitative interview process. As the research study utilizes self-reported data,
referencing the sensitive and sometimes taboo topic of race, the data gathered may be
subject to limitations.
A direct result of the founding principles of the United States of America, which
have detrimentally affected the health, welfare, and prosperity of African-Americans, and
significant disparities and inequalities have resulted. Often, these disparities have been
ingrained within the country’s core institutions, such as the institution of education, and
have continued via unwritten rules and common practices. With this pretense as a
backdrop for the racial climate in American schools, it may prove difficult to generate a
practical and truthful consensus of responses when teachers are asked to discuss race.
The teachers to be interviewed will be asked questions that may reveal that they
have embraced existing societal stereotypes and prejudices regarding racial issues. It is
the belief of the research team that teachers’ may be reluctant to reveal that they hold low
expectations for the performance and success of their African-American students.
Additionally, many teachers have adopted the concept of color-blindness, so they can
ignore and avoid the influential factor of race in the educational arena.
An additional limitation of the study exists with complexities of self reported
data. The data that will be collected will be based on interviews that require interviewee
8
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
to share intimate and personal information related to their core belief system. Although
the results of the study are confidential, the desire to appear politically correct and
socially acceptable may interfere with truthful responses from those interviewed. While
these factors exist, the research team believes that the data gathered will still be useful as
the data represents the valuable perceptions of educators who are actively involved in the
lives of children. It is the belief of the research team that despite the potential for the
interviewees’ responses to be based on social desirability, all quality educators hold an
innate and solid core of ethical values. The choice to educate children is a calling which
is often driven by an individual’s desire to serve and influence the lives of children. The
team believes that despite the background and experiences of educators’, the core
component engrained in their desire to teach, when enhanced with appropriate
professional development, multicultural influences and international cultural
competencies, would ultimately afford all children a quality education.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The high percentage of African-American males in special education placements,
in grades K-12, in this country is alarming. The statistics presented by the UDSE, which
highlight this problem should raise red flags and alarm the educational community to the
brewing crisis for this population. The nearly thirty year span of intrigue and subsequent
acknowledgement of this disparity by progressive researchers and educational
professionals should foster the completion of additional work in this area. Unfortunately,
similar to the inconsequential status of the African-American male in American society,
the disparaging plight of African-American male children in our educational system is
has not received the appropriate attention.
9
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
The research that has been performed (including the work of Claude Steele
(1997), Majors & Billson (1992), and John Ogbu (1997) on this subject to date has
penetrated the bubble of mystery and unfortunate apathy that surrounds this issue.
Consideration has been given to the cultural and social influences which deter or
derail the educational success of African-American males. Literature developed by
Agada & Obiakor (1994) challenges the educational system and the history of racial
injustices and class distinctions which inhibit a comparative rate of success in mainstream
class settings between African-American males and their European-American
counterparts.
The gap in the existing research that this study strives to address involves a close,
critical examination of educators’ perceptions and perspectives relative to this population
of students’ and how these perceptions ultimately effect the practices and management of
African-American male students.
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
INTRODUCTION
In an effort to provide insight into the overrepresentation of African-American
males in special education placements, the review of the literature will explore the
following topics: (1) the historical perspective of special education in the United States,
(2) the processes and importance of the special education referral, (3) existing theories
that address achievement disparities regarding African-American males, and (4) the
impact of teachers’ perceptions on the achievement and placement of African-American
males in special education.
10
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
HISTORICAL VIEW OF SPECIAL EDUCATION IN AMERICA
In 1975, Congress enacted the Education for All Handicapped Children Act
(Public Law 94-142), in an effort to support individual states and local governments with
promoting and securing the educational rights of children with disabilities and their
families. Public Law 94-142 “guaranteed a free, appropriate public education to each
child with a disability in every state and locality across the country” (United States
Department of Education, 2001). This law, which is presently enacted as the Individuals
with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) through a 1997 amendment, is the foundation for
“protecting the rights of, meeting the individual needs of, and improving the results
infants, toddlers, and children”(United States Department of Education, 2001).
The United States Department of Education 23rd Annual Report to Congress,
2001, which details the implementation if IDEA “indicates that African-American
students continue to be overrepresented across all thirteen legally sanctioned disability
categories with significant disproportionality occurring within the categories of Mental
Retardation (MR) and Emotional Disturbance (ED) (Jordan, 2003, p. 128).
A reflective inspection of the contrast between the noble and ethical foundation of
the birth of the law charged with the duty of securing the educational rights of all children
sharply contrasts the disparaging state of educational inequality for African-American
students in America. The evolution of this contrast has been duly noted, debated and
researched by educational advocates spanning the last thirty years.
This debate that began thirty years ago, regarding the overrepresentation of nonwhite racial and ethnic students in special education placements has shown no sign of
11
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
wavering. The debates have however fostered investigations and concrete research which
has solidified and confirmed the existence of the problem (Hosp & Reschly, 2003).
The literary work of Hosp and Reschly, identified a Lloyd Dunn (1968) published
work as one of the earliest articles to present the notable disparity of the
overrepresentation of minority students and students from low SES backgrounds in
special day classes for mild mental retardation. To further highlight the disparity, and
expose a twenty year deficit between thought and action, these researchers also
pinpointed the 1982 research of Jeremy Finn as the first study to examine the “national
disproportionate representation trends” (p. 67). Finn (1982) utilized the data from the
Elementary and Secondary School Civil Rights Compliance report to determine national
disproportionate representation trends. Finn’s examination yielded that African-American
students were overrepresented in classes for Mental Retardation (MR) and Emotional
Disturbance (ED), Native American students were overrepresented in Learning
Disability(LD) classes, and Asian students were underrepresented in every category.
Hispanic and Caucasian students were found to be identified at the same rates.
Propelled by Finn’s work, the United States Department of Education, Office of
Civil Rights (OCR) Compliance Report was commissioned to scrutinize this disparity. In
1987, researchers Chinn and Hughes completed a comparison of the OCR’s Compliance
Report for the years 1978 to 1984 which yielded and confirmed the existence of the same
disproportionate trends of African-American overrepresentation. A representative
outcome of the culmination of the work of these researchers, reflected through annual
OCR reports, yielded that “African-American students were overrepresented in MR and
ES/ED placements, Native American students were overrepresented in Learning Disabled
12
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
(LD) placements, and Asian American students were underrepresented” in each special
education category (Hosp & Reschly, 2003, p. 68).
PRESIDENTIAL PROCLAMATION ON SPECIAL EDUCATION
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), through a 1997
amendment, is the foundation for “protecting the rights of, meeting the individual needs
of, and improving the results infants, toddlers, and children”(United States Department of
Education, 2001).
In the Executive Order on Excellence in Special Education, communicated
through the President’s Commission on Excellence in Special Education, President
George W. Bush reported the following:
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) is a landmark statute that
asserts the rights of all children with disabilities to a free, appropriate public
education. My Administration strongly supports the principles embodied in the
IDEA and the goal of providing special education and related services to children
with disabilities so that they can meet high academic standards and participate
fully in American society. It is imperative that special education operate as an
integral part of a system that expects high achievement of all children, rather than
as a means of avoiding accountability for children who are more challenging to
educate or who have fallen behind (Bush, 2002).
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES AND SPECIAL EDUCATION
The bias related to the overrepresentation of African-American students is further
exasperated by a distinct gender bias against African-American male students (Gibbs,
13
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
1998. Grossman (1995) has observed, that in reference to African-American male
enrollment in special education: “males are much more likely to be enrolled in special
education programs for students with developmental disabilities, behavior disorders,
emotional disturbances, and learning disabilities. Furthermore, this notion is further
perpetrated for male students from low SES backgrounds” (p.8).
An identified culprit, which is believed to contribute to the overrepresentation of
African-American male students in special education placements, is the referral and the
referral process. As established by researchers, the referral process garnishes a weighty
responsibility in the regards to the abundance of African-American males who are
referred for these services (Artiles & Trent, 1994).
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE SPECIAL EDUCATION REFERRAL
A formal dissection of the importance of the referral for special education services
has been established in existing research. Established theoretical viewpoints exist to
support the flawed nature of the referral process. Three of theoretical viewpoints that are
presented below include: (1) the disparity amongst the school and the parent’s
interpretation regarding the significance and possible ramifications behind special
education placement, (2) conformity bias, and (3) cultural differences.
A study by Rogers (2003) highlights discrepancies between school personnel and
parents as to the interpretation of purpose the special education referral. Rogers (2003)
performed a case study that focused on the interpretive reasoning and individual meaning
that propels the referral for special education services, as it differed significantly between
the educational institution and the parent of the student in the study. The focus of this
work identified significant disparities between school personnel and parents. While the
14
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
school personnel in the study viewed the referral for special education placement as an
absolute and finalized step ensuring that the child be labeled with a disability and placed
in a special education setting, the parent’s opinion differed. The parent in this study
perceived the testing as a preliminary, investigatory process that “might” help her child.
This discrepancy is highly relevant as the current process for special education testing
and placement requires parental consent, understanding, and participation in the process.
The research of Hosp and Reschly (2003) focused on the importance of the
teacher, as an influential gatekeeper, who influences the tone and direction of the referral
for special education services. This study utilized existing literature on the referral rates
for intervention or assessment for special education services. Particular focus was placed
on three racial groups: African-Americans, Caucasians, and Latinos. The work was
comprised of ten individual studies which were fused to produce a meta-analysis of the
differences in referral rates for the groups.
The hypothesis of the study was that African-American students were referred at
higher rates than Caucasian students, and that Caucasian and Hispanic students were
referred at similar rates to on another. The goal was to determine whether there was a
disproportionate representation for students of different racial groups in the pool of those
referred.
The outcome, when compared to national rates yielded that African-American
students were referred at higher rates than their Caucasian counterparts. The results also
yielded that Hispanic students were referred at a higher rate than Caucasian students, but
were still referred less that African-American students.
15
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
Hosp and Reschly (2003) proposed that the connection between the student
referral and their eligibility for services should focus on the factors which influence the
actual referral, as completed by the teacher.
One of these contributing factors discussed in the research is the concept of conformity
bias (O’Reilly, Northcraft & Sabers, 1989). Conformity bias is defined as the tendency of
an evaluator to agree with the “preliminary hypothesis” of a teacher or referral team
despite the lack of substantial evidence to support these findings (p.71). This practice will
increase the likelihood that an unfounded and possibly biased synopsis and presentation
of a child’s behavior will become the accepted standard and hinder the child’s
opportunities to avoid special education placement.
An alternative viewpoint connects the nature of the overrepresentation of referrals for this
population into special education placements to cultural differences between teachers and
students. These cultural differences are often reflected by the contrasting differences of
the ethnic background, racial identification, and class distinctions between teachers and
their students. The research of Serwatka, Deering, and Grant (1995) considered “cultural
differences that may lead to biased diagnosis, lack of reliable identification procedures,
the attendant problems of poverty, and racial discrimination” as influential (p. 495). The
work of these scholars focused on the placement of African-American students in
segregated settings more frequently than Caucasian students by utilizing the mandate of
the Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) of Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA).
This mandate states that students with disabilities must be educated with non-disabled
children “to the maximum extent possible” and that these students should not be removed
16
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
from general education unless they cannot receive adequate instruction with aides and
supplementation (p. 495).
Within the research of Serwatka, Deering and Grant (1995) the viewpoints of
educators, regarding the identification of the overrepresentation of the African-American
male was exposed. As their opinions were tallied, the “most frequently cited are cultural
differences that may lead to biased diagnoses, lack of reliable identification procedures,
the attendant problems of poverty, and racial discrimination” (p. 224).
This interpretation of this law and Presidential backing are the pretenses by which
students’ who are presented with barriers to learning, no matter the source of the obstacle,
should be accommodated appropriately. Unfortunately, there is evidence of a significant
disparity in the treatment of African-American males’ and how they are accommodated.
The overrepresentation of the African-American male student in special education
placements in comparison to other minority groups, and their European counterparts,
dictates that there are deficiencies or bias in the identification and intervention practices
of teachers’ who make the initial referral for special education services.
THE REFERRAL PROCESS- INTERVENTION VERSUS PLACEMENT
In their presentation of solution-focused interventions, Watkins and Kurtz (2001)
approach the flawed practice of educators’ to inappropriately and unnecessarily refer
African-American male students’ for educational testing, via a school psychologist, and
their subsequent placement in special education without first utilizing classroom and
community-based interventions. Through their research, the writers’ present the benefits
of the utilization “of a solution-focused approach to early intervention with AfricanAmerican young men who are at risk of being placed in special education” (p. 223). The
17
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
goal of this intervention process would provide substantial grounding for the avoidance
of unneeded testing and subsequent placement.
The practices of the solution-focused interventions involved utilization of school
social workers as the median point of intervention to help resolve the issues of the
identified student. The social worker would then use interventions, especially for those
students identified with behavioral concerns, in hopes to correct or address the behavioral
concerns of the child. Those interventions would revolve around the identification of the
child’s strengths and innate abilities and building a support system or mechanism to be
utilized by the class room teacher to address that child’s behavioral barrier to learning.
Social work efforts, according to Watkins and Kurtz (2001), can help to address
student concerns, especially those related to behavior. This intervention allows for the
identification and examination of the child’s strengths and implementation and utilization
of alternative techniques and methods. This process also allows for the ruling out of
teacher bias, according to Watkins and Kurtz (2001).
A case study on Larry, an eight year old, African-American male in the second
grade was performed. Larry was referred to the school’s support team for assistance to
address his emotional and behavioral needs. The provision of individualized attention, a
reward system, and behavior management plan were successful and the student showed
marked improvement with the plan.
The outcome of case study that utilized solution-focused interventions, with an
infusion of a strength-based approach, was reported to be successful for this student.
18
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
Watkins and Kurtz (2001) promote that these types of interventions, when
designed by a school social worker, or the school’s interdisciplinary team, should become
standard practice for the classroom teacher.
The work of Bahr and colleagues (1991), examined whether teachers’ perceptions
of difficult to teach students were racially founded. Forty-eight general education
teachers from nine inner-city middle schools, in a southeastern metropolitan city, were
asked to nominate difficult-to-teach (DTT) students from a pool of equally represented
African-American and Caucasian students. The identification criteria would highlight the
students who the teachers believed would be most in need of psychological evaluation
and placement in special education.
A “multi-method, multi-source approach” was utilized and the data for the study
was obtained from teacher interviews, completion of teacher rating scales, student
performance academic work, and observations of the students' classroom behavior.
The outcome of the study yielded that the both the Black and White teachers rated
Black DTT students as more appropriate for psychological testing and placement in
special education placements.
INTERVENTION PROGRAMS TO REDUCE SPECIAL EDUCATION REFERRALS
Gottlieb and Polirstok (2005) presented a series of “practice highlights” which
addresses and presents their research in the form of a professional development series for
teachers’. The foundation for this professional development program focused on the
utilization of “positive behavioral interventions designed to reduce the number of
behavioral infraction reports and referrals to special education and to improve academic
achievement” (p. 53). The program incorporated and infused a clinical perspective of
19
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
addressing the climate of the classroom and the organizational skills and set structure of
the classroom by the teacher.
Three inner-city elementary schools were chosen as the “intervention sites.” The
purpose of the study, was to address the main concerns of the district administration,
which was the need for “assistance with classroom management and concerns about the
rate of special education referral” (p. 53). There were demographic, class, and SES
similarities amongst the three schools involved in the program. The similarities included
the existence of a majority of low-income and ethnic-minority students. The collective
racial breakdown, in percentages, of the three schools were: 40.3% African-American,
55.7% Latino, 3.2% Asian, and .8% Caucasian. Of particular interest were the following
attributes of the three schools: School A had an “extremely high rate” of referrals for
special education services, where 11.2% of the kindergarten to fifth grade population was
referred. For School’s B and C the rate of referral for these same services was almost
double the average rate for the entire district.
The professional development course focused on standard behavior management
techniques, teacher directed praise and acknowledgement of appropriate student
behaviors, and the utilization of “positive interventions over negative and punitive
strategies” (p. 53).
The outcomes of the above mentioned practices and techniques, designed to
ensure convenience, usability, and empowerment of the classroom teacher were positive
in nature. In regards to referrals for special education services, the outcomes were:

School A saw a 63% reduction, in reference to the previous year, in actual
referrals for special education services.
20
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation

Schools B and C saw a 31% reduction in special education referrals when
compared to the stats of the previous school year (Gottlieb & Polirstok, 2005,
p.55).
As countless resources have affirmed, the importance of a classroom teacher’s ability
to anticipate, understand, and manage the behaviors of a particular student base is
essential. This ability and practice is especially true for the population of AfricanAmerican males in today’s educational system. As the gatekeepers to the special education
referral, the ability of all teachers’ to utilize a comprehensive support process to ensure the
progress and success of their students is highly important.
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES OF THE UNDERACHIEVEMENT OF THE
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE
John Osborne (2001) highlights trends in literature which have sought to address
the disparity between the educational achievements of the African-American male
relative to their White counterparts. Osborne (2001) has covered a bevy of subjects and
potential sources of this deficiency.
The latest trend of theories address the educational plight of the AfricanAmerican male relative to the social-psychological factors that are unique to this
population of African-American students. Three of the theories which work towards
fostering an understanding of this disparity include the Stereotype Threat theory by
Claude Steele, the Cultural-Ecological theory by John Ogbu, and Cool Pose theory by
Majors and Billson. Osborne (2001) identifies each of these theories as a foundational
grounding to understand why African-American students psychologically withdraw from
school and “disidentify or selectively devalue” the educational process. Despite the
21
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
different avenues and approaches taken by the theorists, the underlying principle of each
piece of work is to explore why “it is difficult for students of color to view themselves as
good students, to define themselves through academics, and to value academics while
still maintaining the integrity of the self” (p.45). Osborne further validates the
importance of the African-American males’ ability to embrace the aforementioned
principles to avoid “adverse academic outcomes.” These outcomes include academic
failure through poor grades and subsequent dropouts.
STEREOTYPE THREAT
Through numerous bodies of work, Claude Steele (1997) has approached the
substandard performance of African-American males in educational arenas. This focus
has been directed by examining the “socio-cognitive dynamics”, specifically
stereotyping, within the educational process in American schools. The core of Steele’s
theory lies in the anxiety created and the aversion developed by African-American males
in the educational setting relative to the existing societal stereotypes. The damage created
by these stereotypes is exacerbated by the educators’ subsequent adoption of the
stereotype of the intellectual inferiority of African-American male, resulting in
diminished efforts to adequately educate these children.
The pressure to perform successfully in school causes anxiety for all children,
even those who traditionally do well in and educational setting. But, according to Steele
(1997), for the African-American male students’ who are subjected to the societal
stereotypes of being threatening and aggressive, unmotivated and shiftless, unintelligent,
and intellectually delayed, the pressures may seem insurmountable. To further
substantiate his argument, Steele projected that the outcome of functioning in this type of
22
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
environment would foster what he has termed as ‘disindentification.’ This term, closely
related to the psychological concept of self-esteem, would cause the student to
“selectively devalue” education. This practice would eliminate the subjection of the
student to degrading evaluations relative to their educational performance. A crucial point
made by Steele addresses that African-American students do not generally begin their
educational careers in this state of duress and discontent, but that this state of being
evolves as their educational career progresses.
CULTURAL-ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
The theoretical perspective of John Ogbu (1997) approaches the plight of the
African-American student through a lens which does not view each of the respective
minority groups together. Ogbu’s (1997) argument distinctly separates the social realities
and outcomes of the respective minority groups, relative to their voluntary or involuntary
entry into this country. The distinction between the minorities entering the country
involuntarily, those who were enslaved, subjugated, and non-immigrant workers, versus
the voluntary group, such as immigrants, will affect the minority groups’ outlook and
future social standing in this country. According to Ogbu (1997), the involuntary
minority group will likely adopt a “social or collective” stance that strays from and
denounces the identity of the majority, dominant group. Inversely, minority groups which
have come to this country willingly, with hopes to make inroads and progress for their
future, perceive education as the vehicle to achieve these goals.
The adverse response is often seen amongst African-American students who may
view the educational system as an additional vehicle of oppression and degradation of
their value and self-worth. Moreover, these students witness the lack of respect and
23
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
acknowledgement afforded to minority students who experience success and
achievements and are doubly deterred from success.
COOL POSE
Majors and Billson (1992) devoted their research to dissect the methods of
adaptation that African-American males utilize to survive in a society of racial inequality
and injustice. The researchers propose that African-American males display a “ritualized
form of masculinity” called the “cool pose”. The cool pose is visually identified by a
slouching posture, an aloof, distant appearance with a slight glare of contempt. Majors
and Billson (1992) explain that this stance “counters inner pain from damaged pride, poor
self-confidence, and fragile social competence that comes from existing as a member of a
subjugated group” (p.48). Relative to the educational setting, the cool pose may solicit
judgments of disapproval and perceptions of aggression and potential violence from
school personnel. This stance and posturing may also denote a diminished academic
motivation and a lack of respect for the educational system and ultimately, garnish
negative attention and punishment from school personnel and administrators, when
compared to the mainstream, accepted students’ behaviors.
PERCEPTIONS OF THE MOVEMNT STYLES OF AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES
Research performed by Neal, McCray, Webb-Johnson & Bridgest (2003) has
examined how African-American students’ movement styles and mannerisms, influence
teachers’ practices and behavior management of African-American children. The study
specifically examines teachers’ perceptions of the African-American males in relation to
“aggression, achievement, and the need for special education assistance based on their
cultural movements” (p.50).
24
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
The research of Neal, McCray, Webb-Johnson & Bridgest (2003) specifically
focused on the walking/movement style of African-American males as compared to their
European American counterparts. The projection by the researchers was that the walking
motions of African-American males, described as “swaggered with bent posture and a
hanging head”, may be perceived as “inappropriate, negative, rude, intimidating, and
threatening” by teachers’ (p.52). Subsequently, the students’ would be subjected to lower
standards and intellectual expectations, with possible referral for special education
services.
The study participants consisted of one-hundred and thirty-six middle school
teachers from a southwestern state, in a suburban school district. The teachers’ were
shown a videotape that depicted two students, one African-American and one Caucasian,
walking in a hallway of a middle school. The students’ were similarly dressed and were
in the same grade and age bracket. In the video, both students displayed a standard walk
and a more ethnic stroll. After watching the video, the teachers were asked to complete a
4-point Likert scale and a questionnaire. Both the scale and the questionnaire were
designed to measure the teachers’ impression of whether the students in the video were in
need of special education services.
The outcome of the study yielded that teachers’ viewed both the AfricanAmerican and Caucasian students’ who portrayed the ethnic/cultural style of walking or
stroll movement as “lower in achievement, higher in aggression, and more likely to need
special education services” than students who displayed the standard, erect European
movement style.
25
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
In American society, the African-American male is generally viewed by European
Americans to be “hostile, angry, and prone to violence” (p. 49). Specifically, with the
influence of detrimental societal stereotypes, perpetuated through news and media
outlets, these stereotypes filter into the psyche and practices of educators. This allows for
the negative interpretation and generalization of culturally specific mannerisms and
practices, seen amongst most African-American males, to be tainted and villainized
within educational institutions. The relevance of teachers’ perceptions of culturally
connected behaviors, as manifested in the classroom, directly affects students’
achievement levels. “Teachers misunderstandings of and reaction to students’ culturally
conditioned behaviors can lead to school and social failure. Researchers have indicated
that teachers’ perceptions and lack of cultural responsiveness can result in student
psychological discomfort and low achievement” (Hilliard, 1976; Obikor, 1999).
To further elaborate on the abovementioned arguments Ladson-Billings (2001)
proposed that “Students of color may become alienated from the schooling process
because schooling often asks children to be someone or something other than who they
really are…..It asks them to dismiss their community and cultural knowledge” (p. xiv).
Although the studies mentioned identify and link the connection of cultural and
racial identity of students to teachers’ perceptions and practices, further research needs to
be done to foster further insight into the subject.
RESEARCH DESIGN
This study utilized a qualitative methodology. Specifically, face-to-face
interviews were conducted. The nature of the study, which measures teachers’
perceptions, was best suited to be addressed through the application and utilization of
26
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
qualitative mechanisms. The value of the use of the qualitative method allows for an
intimate, in-depth investigation into the thought processes, influential factors to this
process, and perceptions of the teachers’ questioned. The interview also allowed the
researcher to observe and absorb the non-verbal cues of the subjects’ interviewed.
PROCEDURE
The primary component used for collection of data for the research project was
the interview protocol. To garnish a significant and comprehensive sampling of
individuals, eight individual interviews were performed. The interviews provided
detailed, in-depth, and personalized insight into the intricacies that influenced the
perspectives of the teachers’ who were interviewed.
Before the research began, the research project designer obtained the
appropriate consent and permission forms. This process began with submission of an
application to conduct research to Eastern Universities Internal Review Board. Once
approval was obtained the research team developed a thorough, topic specific interview
protocol (Appendix A) that would best solicit candid and frank responses from the
interviewees. At the onset of each interview the interviewees were presented with two
specific consent forms. The forms were: Informed Consent for Research Participants
form (Appendix B) and the Permission to Audiotape (Appendix C).
The completion of the interviews entailed the following steps: (1) review and
completion of the consent forms, (2) audio taping of the interview while in progress, (3)
use of a neutral observant party to notate any relevant body language or mannerisms
displayed by the respondents, and (4) the subsequent transcription of each interview once
completed.
27
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
The interview candidates were ensured that the information provided during the
interview would be held in confidence amongst the researchers. Additionally, the
information shared would not in any way affect or inhibit their relationship with their
individual school, school district personnel, or the interviewer.
The design utilized was directed towards a sampling of special education teachers,
who represented various ethnicities, from public school systems representing the tri-state
area, including the states of Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Delaware.
To preserve the integrity of the research project, the interviewer provided an
explanation of the expected procedure for conducting the interview, the specifics of
confidentiality were discussed, and questions posed by the interviewees were adequately
answered prior to the beginning of the interview.
SAMPLE FOR THE STUDY
The sample that was chosen for the study was by convenience. The eight
participants that were chosen to be interviewed were current and former teachers, and
each had existing relationship with the research project members, both personal and
professional. The sample consisted of five female and three male participants. Four of the
participants were African-American, one of mixed heritage (Latino and European), and
three were Caucasian. The interview participants’ professional experiences and years of
service in their perspective teaching careers varied as well. The variations amongst the
interviewees’ backgrounds included adult education, community-based service provision,
and elementary education. Their respective years in education spanned from two to ten
years.
28
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
THE INSTRUMENTS
The interview questions were designed with the discretionary consideration that
the core of the questions needed to foster insightful, introspective thinking but also avoid
the development of any discomfort, preventing the interviewees from effectively
answering the presented questions. Ultimately, the interview questionnaire was designed
to assist the researchers in gaining an idea of how educators feel about the lack of
achievement of their African-American male students. These questions were pilot tested
on two non-participants and revised before use in this study.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS
Upon completion of the field work phase of the research, each completed
interview was transcribed and evaluated. The completed interviews were reviewed and
analyzed. As part of this process, the prominent themes from each respondent were
collected and formulated into the table below. The data displayed in the table presents
unified themes amongst the respondents and the respective questions which garnished
these responses.
Table 1.1
Interview Questionnaire Response Themes
Questions
Q5.Describe the demographic make-up
of your special education classroom.
29
Themes
R1:Latinos; Black Males second
R2: African-American males and females
R3: Majority African-American; remainder Hispanic
R4: African-American Males
R5: Of five, three African-American, two Hispanic.
R6: Of the 15 registered all are male, 14 are African-American
males, 1 is Brazilian.
R7: All Black males
R8: African-American males.
Outcome
7 African- American
male
1 Hispanic/ Latino
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
Q6. Categorize the common
denominators connecting the students
in this classroom, include factors such
as: race, gender, SES, functional grade
levels, etc.
Q7.Give your perception of the most
highly represented group in these
categories by listing characteristics of
the group.
Q8. What factors do you think have
greatly impacted and influenced the
referral of these children into special
education services?
Q9. Think about the movement styles
of the majority of the Black males in
your school: The way they walk, stand,
and approach others. How do you
perceive their movements? What
messages do you believe their bodily
movements convey in the school
context?
Q10. Identify the influence and rank of
the following individuals on these
children’s lives: Parents, Teachers,
Administrators, and Community
members.
Q11. Is the responsibility greater
amongst any of these parties?
30
R1: Urban community; Low income family.
R2: Behavior problems; black students’ parents not accessible.
R3: Race
R4: Poor, lower class; predominantly African-American
R5: Low, kindergarten and pre-primer, grade levels
R6: Not proficient in Math and reading; Live with caregiver
relatives; Absentee parents.
R7: Behavior problems/ Emotional issues.
R8: Absentee parents, poverty.
R1: Af-Am males
R2: Black, Af-Am male
R3: Learning disabled
R4: no answer.
R5: African-American boys.
R6: Black Males
R7: African-American Males
R8: Black Males
3 Low income, lower
class; poor
1 Race
2 Low grade levels/
Not proficient in
basic skills
2 Behavior/
Emotional issues
R1: behavior; parental requests made from frustration.
R2: Behavior; inability to cope w/ conflict.
R3: Failure of multiple class subjects.
R4: Child that is overly active; teachers’ impression of that child
and parental awareness of the child’s needs.
R5: Poor social skills, behavior issues, and delayed language
development.
R6: Behavior problems.
R7: Behaviors are misunderstood by teachers.
R8: Unruly behaviors; disrespectful to authority.
R1: Product of their environment; reflection of the parents.
R2: Generally casual, but when challenged, can be intimidating
R3: Trying to be cool; often silly.
R4: Those unfamiliar with culture view it as hostile and
threatening.
R5: Not universally racial, but some are grown-up like,
stereotypical, attitude, guarded, and edgy.
R6: Insecure, displaying inability to be motivated;
R7: Loud , flamboyant; Ebonic language; slang language.
R8: Lazy
5 Behavior
1 Overly active
1 Poor social skills,
behavior, language
1 Behaviors are
misunderstood by
teachers.
R1: Parents
R2: Parents
R3: Parents first; teacher second
R4: Parents first, community second.
R5: Parents
R6: The community- even when negative.
R7: Parents first, teachers second
R8: Community
R1: Teachers
R2:Teachers
R3: Parents
R4: Parents
R5: Parents
R6: Parents
R7: All entities: Parents, Teachers, Community
R8: The society at large
6 African-American
males
1 learning disabled
1 no answer
3 Hostile,
intimidating, edgy,
guarded
1 Cool
1 Loud; Flamboyant
1 Insecure;
unmotivated
1 Lazy
1 Product of
environment/
community
6 Parents
2 Community
4 Parents
2 Teachers
1 All entities
1 Society at large
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
Q13. Ultimately, who will bear the
responsibility of these children’s
disabilities?
R1: The child.
R2:Child
R3: The children
R4: Society.
R5: Society as a whole.
R6: The children themselves
R7: Society
R8: The child
5 The child
3 Society
Overall, the responses from the teachers’ interviewed, presented with a level of
correspondence and cohesion amongst the group. The interview themes table, 1.1
highlights the similarities amongst the group. There was no distinct difference between
the respondents regarding the acknowledgement of the existence of the
overrepresentation of African-American males in special education placements.
Interview question #6 which addressed the demographic groupings, the common
denominators amongst the students, SES, and the influential factors for placement
highlighted the numerous plights of children from impoverished minority backgrounds,
although this was not the goal of the question. The interview question asked the
interviewee: “Categorize the common denominators connecting the students in this
classroom, include factors such as: race, gender, SES, functional grade levels, etc.” The
responses solidified the perceptions of the research project group regarding the existing
social plight of these students as well as the expected perception of these students by their
teachers.
The data collected regarding teachers’ perceptions of the body language and
movement styles of African-American males from interview question # 9 represented two
angles. The question asked: “Think about the movement styles of the majority of the
Black males in your school: the way they walk, stand, and approach others. How do you
perceive their movements? What messages do you believe their bodily movements
31
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
convey in the school context?” There was an overwhelming agreement that these
students’ portray an image and communication style that is often villainized in the media
and is uniquely attached to the African-American culture. The notion of whether this
demeanor is believed to be potentially malicious and threatening, even when displayed by
a child, for three of the respondents was subjective to an understanding and awareness of
African-American culture. One of the African-American male respondents shared,
I think it depends on who is reading the message… I think that if it’s someone
who doesn’t/isn’t familiar with the language, and if it’s someone who has a
certain fear or anxiety about what they perceive to be hostile, then I think the
message is going to be a threat. And it’s going to generate fear.
In response to question #13, “Ultimately, who will bear the responsibility of these
children’s disabilities?”, there were two responses. The student himself garnished three
responses and the society at large followed second. The response of one of the
respondents, an African-American female, with eight years teaching experience, was
shared with a very matter-of-fact disposition. This respondents’ statement profoundly
expressed the broader scope concerns:
My first reaction is in a negative way, like society will bear the burden if these
kids are not successful, because if they’re not able to thrive and navigate
successfully in society, what are they going to do?... they would be a burden to
the community and to society and you can imagine in what way…..when kids go
through special education end up getting out of school or dropping out of school
what do they do with their lives.
THE DEMOGRAPHIC MAKEUP OF THE SPECIAL EDUCATION CLASSROOM
Of the eight respondents to the interviewed, there was a consensus relative to the
demographic make-up of the special education classes. The predominant racial group
32
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
represented in the special education classes was African-Americans, with Latino being
the second largest represented racial group. Respondent #4 shared the following, “The
majority of them are African-American males. You have to look at it in two ways-one
there’s a high number of African-Americans in this school district, so you’re going to
have a higher number regardless.” Respondent #7 reported, “Prior to my current teaching
job, I taught in an inner-city school. I taught 4th,5th, and 6th grade special education. My
classroom has fourteen children, all Black males. This year I teach in a predominantly
White school and the students in my classroom are predominantly Black.”
The gender identified most frequently, was consistent with all respondents
answers to be males. Respondent #4, who addressed the demographic relative to the
number of years spent teaching said, “Mostly since I’ve been teaching I’ve had all males.
I’ve had a girl sprinkled in here and there…this year I have two girls and the year before I
had one girl…so it’s always been a male dominated class. This year I have thirteen
children and I have two girls and eleven boys.” Respondent #5 described the gender
component to include the following, “Currently I have five students. Four of them are
boys, one girl….In fact, in my eight years I’ve only had three girls. The rest have been
boys and this is my smallest class to date.”
THE COMMON DENOMINATORS AMONG SPECIAL EDUCATION STUDENTS
The collective responses to this question, relative to table 2.1, identify the
following factors: low income, lower class, poor, race, low grade levels, not proficient in
basic skills, and behavioral and emotional issues, as common denominators to the
students in these teachers’ classrooms. Specifically, as expressed by Respondent #6,
these factors include, “The majority of my students’ have to or have had to fend for
33
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
themselves at some point. Many of them are being raised by family
members…grandparents, Aunts, etc…because their parents are nowhere to be found, and
if they are present in the child’s life, they’re disconnected and not available.”
INFLUENTIAL FACTORS TOWARDS REFERRAL
For this interview question there was a unanimous, collective belief amongst the
teachers’ interviewed. In some capacity, each teacher identified that behavior was the
greatest, most influential reason contributing to the students’ referral to and placement in
special education. Respondent #8, rather prolifically, shared the root of the problem to be
that:
Early education teachers’ lack of understanding of the children, Black boys
particularly and (their) inability to manage the students. Many kids are
educationally as functional as regular education students, but due to a behavioral
incident with their temper or anger, they are placed.
Respondent #4 stated, “We’ll I can add something to that too, I think in a school
setting, when depending on what the issue is, if it’s a child that is really active, or a child
who just isn’t getting it…then it’s the teacher who directs the referral from that point.
PERCEPTIONS OF THE MOVEMENT STYLES OF AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES
The response from the interviewees varied with this question. Some teachers’
perceived that the movement styles of African-American male are influential in the
school setting as well as the community, ultimately leading to perceived notions and
stereotypes and prejudices of mischief and malice from the public and educators.
Respondent #7 expressed, “At my new school, Black males stand out in the hallway; they
are the loudest and the children with the most personality. They wear uniforms, so dress
34
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
is not taken into consideration, however their speech is different and it is often corrected
in the classroom.” Respondent #6, shared the following:
Very few are leaders. Adolescents conform to a style that reflects that education
isn’t important. They come to school because they have to. They appear as if they
need justification form their peers who model these negative stereotypes. As an
African-American man I model the appropriate behaviors and mannerisms in
hopes to influence my students.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
A reflection back to the initial questions which directed the data collection and
analysis for the research project include the consideration of the question of whether
there is a notable theme in teachers’ perceptions of the movement styles of AfricanAmerican males in relation to perceived aggression, based on race?
The responses from the teachers’ interviewed, presented a level of congruity and
cohesion amongst the respondents. Although several of the respondents attached
stipulations of subjectivity to their responses, related to cultural awareness and
sensitivity, the underlying theme of their answers were similar with the other
respondents. This appearance of congruity was surprising to the research team.
Considering the differences amongst the responding group, including age, gender, race,
and years of teaching, it was expected that the division of the responses would be distinct.
Although the respondents’ did not each clearly identify that the movement styles
of their African-American were personally perceived or experienced to involve
aggression or potential danger, the respondents each appeared to understand the basis for
this stereotype in society. This concept was more intriguing for those teachers in an
35
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
elementary setting with a younger group of students. Their apathy surrounding the
concept of these movement styles as potentially being attuned to violence and aggression
was evident. But, on the same token, several attributed these same movement styles as
potential reasoning as to why the children are viewed as being in need of special
education services. One of the respondents even chuckled at the thought of her
kindergarten aged African-American students being prone to violence, but was less
entertained when asked to consider those same actions from an African-American child
who was older and larger in stature.
The second research question that warrants consideration when reviewing the
outcome of the study is: What are teacher's perceptions regarding the influence of race
and culture in the following areas: identification of special needs students, grounding for
the initial referral for special education services, and the identification of who is
responsible for the overrepresentation of African-American males in these placements?
This information was generated in an efficient fashion through the interview
questionnaire and is presented in table 1.1.
In nine of the thirteen questions, each respondent made an unsolicited reference to
the race and the SES of the population of African-American males in question. These
references, including comments that described the students relative to: having absenteesingle parents, being a product of their urban community and a reflection of their parents.
These identifiers were often used as descriptions of the children instead of descriptions
and indicators of their lives and living conditions. Although the research team did not
perceive the respondents use of these societal indicators as malicious descriptions of the
36
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
students, it was viewed as unfortunate that these children are viewed relative to their
circumstances rather than their individual character.
It was clear from the analysis of the interviewees’ responses, that the teachers
believe that societal ills including: poverty, SES, and class influence and contribute to
African-American males being identified and referred to special education. The most
intriguing notion was captured when the interviewees were asked to identify who holds
the highest responsibility for this issue. Four of the eight respondents expressed that the
Parents of these African-American male children bear the greatest responsibility. Only
two of the eight felt that as educators, they held the most significant portion of the
responsibility. This outcome calls to question what educators’ believe is their
responsibility to the children they have chosen to teach.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES AND EQUITY IN EDUCATION
Overall, the participants recognized a lack of equity in the educational arena for
African-American males, regardless of their racial background and experiences. The data
collected regarding teachers’ perceptions did coincide with prior research findings. The
teachers’ who participated in the research project were knowledgeable about the issues
regarding the overrepresentation of African-American males in special education
placements and their responses reflected such knowledge. One interviewed teacher
responded “there is an undeniable achievement gap amongst Black males. However, I
believe that all ethical teachers approach Black males the same as they would approach
any other student.” This teacher’s emphasis on the ethical component of teaching
practices draws attention to and reiterates the importance of the ethics of educators in the
classroom.
37
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
SOCIAL DESIRABILITY
One of the identified limitations of this study was self-reporting. The notion of
whether the interviewees would openly reveal information that may not be perceived as
politically correct, relative to the sensitive and often taboo topic of race was prevalent.
This phenomenon is defined as social desirability.
Social desirability has been described as a tendency to overestimate desirable
traits and behaviors and underestimate undesirable ones, when using self-reported
measures (Dadds, Perrin & Yule,1998).
The primary belief was that teachers, as they are charged to ensure the education
of their students, would not speak detrimentally of the mental capacity or abilities of any
one particular group of students. Also, relative to race relations and racial tensions in
American history, the teacher’s also would be reluctant to publicly acknowledge or reveal
any predisposed prejudices and low expectations of African-American male students.
This could foster a belief that they are being biased or prejudiced, based solely on the
racial group of this group of students.
APPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
The results of this study should be considered for review into professional
development sessions in urban schools across the country. Teachers, administrators, and
school boards members should participate in a process of self examination to determine
their stance on this issue and identify any potential impact and influence towards closing
the achievement gap for African-American males. School boards in every district should
have to examine whether they are meeting the needs of the economically disadvantaged
and those cultures that have been previously and are presently marginalized. When the
38
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
themes that were researched are evident from teachers across racial boundaries, there
arises the need for further examination.
For the consideration of internal reforms or corrective actions within our
educational institutions, the following items should be viewed as potentially beneficial
and considered for implementation: (1) the provision of a safe and non-judgmental venue
allowing teachers’ to be introspective regarding their treatment and management of
African-American males in special education placements, (2) an examination of the
common behaviors and attitudes of these children, with focused attention on the
manifestation of their behavior in the school setting, (3) the development of a knowledge
base, through professional development for teachers’, of the factors which influence and
contribute to these behaviors and mannerisms, and (4) the infusion of moral and valuebased curriculum for the students currently receiving special education services.
RESPONSIBILITY OF THE EDUCATOR
With the trend of accountability being subjected upon teachers’ via the ‘No Child
Left Behind’ law and initiatives, it was surprising that only two of the eight respondents
did not identify their direct or indirect roles of responsibility as to the future successes or
failures of the African-American male student. Considering this observation, it should
become evident to educators’ that they are the last of the Mohicans who can escape
bearing the burdens placed on society by miseducated children.
WHAT IS THE FUTURE OF THE AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE?
African-American males appear to be leading the race in high representation
amongst the societal ills and mores of this country. An reflection upon the work of this
39
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
research project and those which were utilized to support the arguments of this research
team point to the African-American male as condemned and doomed to linger in an abyss
of failure through all the stages of their lives. Beginning with their education, this
population begins their lives in turmoil and at a disadvantage. It appears that all of
society’s ills disproportionately affect this group. Hopefully the driving force of hope
which has powered this research will grow and there will light at the end of the tunnel for
the African-American male.
40
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
REFERENCES
Agada, J. & Obiakor, F.E. (1994). The politics of education: Imperatives for africanamerican males in the 21st century. Kansas City, MI: National Association for
Ethnic Studies. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 368 833).
Artiles, A. and Trent, S. (1994). Overrepresentation of minority students in special
education: A continuing debate. Journal of Special Education, 27, 410-437.
Retrieved from EBSCOhost database
Bahr, M. W., Fuchs. D., Stecker, P. M. & Fuchs, L. S. (1991). Are teachers’ perceptions
of difficult-to-teach students racially biased? School Psychology Review, 20, 599608. Retrieved March 4, 2006, from EBSCOhost database.
Butler, D. M. (1997). The significance of african-american male social skills: Students
with and without disabilities. Charlottesville, VA: Center of Minority Research in
Special Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 426 155).
Dadds, M.R., Perrin S., Yule, W. (1998). Social desirability and self-reported anxiety in
children: an analysis of the RCMAS Lie Scale. Journal of Abnormal Child
Psychology, 26(3), 1– 7. Retrieved May 7, 2006 from EBSCOhost database.
Dunn, L. (1968). Special education for the mildly retarded – is much of justifiable?
Exceptional Children, 23, 5-21. Retrieved February 15, 2006 from EBSCOhost
database.
Finn, J. D. (1982). Patterns in special education placement as revealed by the OCR
survey. In K.A. Heller, W. Holtzman, & Messick (Ed.), Placing children in
special education: A strategy for equity (pp.322-381). Washington, D.C: National
Academy Press.
Gibbs, J.T. (1988). Young, black, and male in america: an endangered species. Dover,
41
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
MA: Auburn House.
Gotlieb. J. and Polirstok S. (2005). Programs to reduce behavioral infractions and
referrals to special education. 27(1), 53-57. Retrieved February 15, 2006 from
EBSCOhost database
Gresham, F. M. (1983). Social skills assessment as a component of mainstreaming
placement decisions. Exceptional Children, 49, 331-336. Retrieved March 4,
2006, from EBSCOhost database.
Gresham, F. M., Elliot, S. N. & Black, F. L. (1987). Teacher-rated social skills of
mainstreamed mildly handicapped and non-handicapped children, School
Psychology Review, 16(1), 78-88. Retrieved March 4, 2006, from EBSCOhost
database.
Grossman, H. (1995). Special education in a diverse society. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Herrera, J. (1998). The disproportionate placement of African-American males in special
education: an analysis of ten cities. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.
ED 423 324).
Hosp, J. L. and Reschly, D. J. (2003). Referral rates for intervention or assessment: a
meta-analysis of racial differences. Journal of Special Education, 37(1), 67-80.
Retrieved February 15, 2006 from EBSCOhost database.
Jordan, K. (2003). Discourses of difference and the overrepresentation of black students
in special education. Journal of African American History, 90(1-2),128-149.
Retrieved February 15, 2006 from EBSCOhost database.
Ladson-Billings, G. (2001). Crossing over to caanan. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
42
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
Majors, Richard (2001). Educating our black children: new directions and radical
approaches. 2001. Routledge Falmer. New York.
Majors, R. and Billson, J. M. (1992) Cool pose: the dilemmas of black manhood in
America. New York: Lexington Books.
Moore, A. (2002). African-American early childhood teachers’ decisions to refer
African- American Students. Qualitative Studies in Education,15(6),631-652.
(ERIC Document Service No. ED 477543).
Neal, L., McCray, A. D., Webb-Johnson, G., and Bridgest, S. T. (2003). The effects of
african american movement styles on teachers’ perceptions and reactions. Journal
of Special Education, 37(1), 49-58. Retrieved February 28, 2006 from
EBSCOhost database.
Obiakor, F.E. (1999). Teacher expectations of minority exceptional learners: Impact on
accuracy of self-concepts. Exceptional Children, 66(1), 39-53. Retrieved April 2,
2006, from EBSCOhost database.
Ogbu, J. U. (1997). Understanding the school performance of urban blacks: Some
essential background knowledge, in H. Walberg, O. Reyes and R. Weissenberg
eds), Children and Youth: Interdisciplinary Perspectives, London: Sage
Productions.
O’Reilly, C., Northcraft, G. B. & Sabers (1989). The confirmation bias in special
education eligibility decisions, School Psychology Review, 18, 126-135. Retrieved
March 3, 2006 from EBSCOhost database.
Osborne, J. (2001) Academic disidentification: unraveling underachievement among
black boys. In Richard Majors, (Ed.) Educating our Black children: new
43
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
directions and radical approaches (45-57). New York: Routledge Falmer.
Rogers, R. (2003). A Critical Discourse of the Special Education Referral Process: A
Case Study. Education, 24(2), 139-58. Retrieved April 2, 2006, from EBSCOhost
database.
Serwatka, T.S., Deering, S., Grant, P. (1995). Disproportionate representation of african
Americans in emotionally handicapped classes. Journal of Black Studies, 25(4),
492-506. Retrieved March 3, 2006 from EBSCOhost database
Steele, C. (1997). A threat in the air: how stereotypes shape intellectual identity and
performance of african-americans. American Psychologist, 52, 613-629.
Retrieved March 3, 2006 from EBSCOhost database
United States Department of Education (2001). Elementary and Secondary
School Survey. Washington, DC: Author
United States Department of Education (2004). The Condition of Education Report.
Washington, DC: Author
United States Department of Education. (2001). Twenty-third annual report to Congress
on the implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act.
Washington, DC: Author.
United States Department of Education. (2002). Executive Order on Excellence in
Special Education, President’s Commission on Excellence in Special Education.
Retrieved April 4, 2006, from http://www.usde.gov/IDEA
Watkins, A. and Kurtz, D. P. (2001). Using solution focused intervention to address
african-american male overrepresentation in special education: a case study.
44
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
Children and Schools, 23(4), 223-235. Retrieved March 3, 2006 from
EBSCOhost database
Ysseldyke, J.E., Algozzine, B. and Mitchell, J. (1982). Special education team decision
making: an analysis of current practice. Personnel & Guidance, 60(5), 308.
45
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
Appendix A
INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
Discussion Topic: Teachers’ Perceptions of the Overrepresentation of African-American Male
Students in Special Education Placements
Time of Interview:
Date:
Place:
Interviewer:
Interviewee:
Position of Interviewee:
The purpose of this study is to document and examine the perspectives and perceptions
teachers’ hold regarding the nature and existence of the overrepresentation of AfricanAmerican students in special education placements. Eight interviews will be completed, so
there will be seven teachers in addition to you who will be interviewed. You responses are our
prime source of our data. All discussed information is confidential and will only be shared
with my fellow group members, as well as our professor. At no time will your name be used to
connect you with comments discussed. For the purpose of this interview, therefore, you will
be referred to as Respondent #___. Your responses will be recorded, and transcripts will be
available for you to verify the accuracy of the report. This interview is expected take no longer
than one hour of your time.
1. How long have you been a teacher?
2. Looking back, what factors influenced your decision to teach?
3. What is your area of expertise? What subjects have you taught?
4. What age group of children do you teach? Do you have a favorite or preference?
5. Describe the demographic make-up of your special education classroom?
6. Categorize the common denominators connecting the students in this classroom, include
such factors as race,
gender, SES, functional grade levels, etc.
7. Give your perception of the most highly represented group in these categories by
listing characteristics of the group.
8. What factors do you think have greatly impacted and influenced the referral of these
children into special education services?
9. Think about the movement styles of the majority of the Black males in your school:
the way they walk, stand and approach others. How do you perceive their movements?
What messages do you believe their bodily movements convey in the school context?
46
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
10. Identify the influence of the following individuals including: Parents, Teachers,
Administrators, and community members.
11. Is the responsibility greater amongst any of these parties?
12. Ultimately, who do you think will bear the burden of these children's disabilities?
13. Do you agree with theorists like John Ogbu who suggest that African American
males may reject schooling because it is perceived as "acting white”?
47
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
Appendix B
INFORMED CONSENT FOR RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS
I, __________________________________ agree to participate in a study which
assesses Teachers’ Perceptions of the Overrepresentation of African-American Male
Students in Special Education Placements. I am aware that this study is being conducted
by Ms. ___________________________________ , an Eastern University graduate
student.
I am aware that participation in this study is voluntary. I have been told that I can choose
not to participate at any time without affecting my relationship with Eastern University,
my employer, or Ms. ________________________________.
I have also been told that should I choose to participate, the information I share with
Ms.______________________________ will not be shown to my school administrators
or school personnel and will not violate my right to confidentiality.
My signature below indicates that I have read and understood the contents of this Assent
Form and that I agree to take part in this study.
__________________________________
Signature
48
___________________
Date
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
Appendix C
PERMISSION TO AUDIOTAPE
Investigator's Name:
School:
Date:
Project Title: Teacher’s Perceptions of the Overrepresentation of African-American Students
Males in Special Education Placements.
I give _________________________________ permission to audiotape my responses to the
above listed interview topic. This audiotape will be used only for the following purpose (s):
_the completion of the research project whose title is listed above____________________ .
This audiotape will be used as apart of a research project at Eastern University. I have
already given written consent for my participation in this research project. At no time will my
name be used.
I agree to have my responses audio taped for a time period covering ___one_______ hours.
I give my permission for these tapes to be used from: 2005 to 2008. Audiotapes are held by
the University for a period no longer than three years past the completion of the study.
I understand that I can withdraw my permission at any time. Upon my request, the
audiotape(s) will no longer be used. I understand that any such request will not affect my
standing or relationship with the University or interviewer in any way.
I understand that I will not be paid for being audio taped or for the use of the audiotapes.
If I want more information about the audiotape(s), or if I have questions or concerns at any
time, I can contact:
Name: Kathy-ann C. Hernandez, Ph.D.
Eastern University, Graduate Department of Education
Phone: _610.649.2556
This form will be placed in a research file pertinent to this research project and a copy will be
kept by the person(s) named above. A copy will be given to me.
Interviewee Name (Print): ___________________________________
Today’s Date: _____________________________________________
Address: _________________________________________________
Telephone# day:_________________ evening:__________________
Signature: ________________________________________________
49
Teachers Perceptions of the Overrepresentation
50