THE SALEM INSTRUCTIONAL MODEL
The Salem Instructional Model is a model that provides definitions of
the elements of effective instruction in the Salem City Schools. The Salem
Instructional Model is made up of three main parts – Lesson Design,
Instructional Practices, and Principles of Learning. The chart below
illustrates the three divisions and their components.
THE SALEM INSTRUCTIONAL MODEL
LESSON
INSTRUCTIONAL
DESIGN
PRACTICES
Objective/Introduction
Learning Environment
Input
-Classroom Management
Modeling
-Discipline
Checking for Understanding
-Instructional Organization
Practice
-Logistics
Closure
Teacher-Student Interaction
Evaluation of Learning
Engaged Learning Time
Provisions for Individual
Differences
PRINCIPLES OF
LEARNING
Motivation
Reinforcement
Retention
Transfer
The Salem Instructional Model gives teachers, administrators, and supervisors a
common set of terms to use in the description and discussion of the teaching process.
The components are those customarily employed by teachers and rooted in research on
effective teaching. In order to establish and reaffirm the use of a common vocabulary to
discuss instructional practices, staff development time may need to be devoted to a
review of the model and its components. The building principal is responsible for
assuring that all teaching staff members receive a copy of the model and any needed
training about the model.
The Salem Instructional Model provides an outline of the components a teacher
considers in planning and implementing a lesson with students. It is not meant to be a
sequential prescription for the teaching process; instead it provides a framework.
Beginning with the components addressed in the model, a teacher develops lessons that
use a variety of teaching strategies (models of teaching), that include provisions for the
diversity of learning styles one finds in a classroom, and that assess student achievement
throughout the teaching process.
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LESSON DESIGN
Lesson
Design
can
be
subdivided
into
seven
components:
Objective/Introduction,
Instructional
Input,
Modeling,
Checking
for
Understanding, Practice, Closure, and Evaluation of Learning. In planning a lesson,
the teacher considers each component. However, not every lesson will contain each
component; nor do the components necessarily occur in any sequential pattern. Careful
consideration of each component as a part of the planning process assists the teacher in
developing an instructional plan that is likely to lead to successful teaching and learning.
Components of Lesson Design
Objective/Introduction: The statement of the learning objective is a critical component
of a lesson. Every part of the lesson is directly related to the expected learning outcome
for the student. In most lessons the objective comes directly from the SOL’s and the
curriculum guide. Sometimes, through the process of task analysis, a learning objective
needs to be broken down into smaller, incremental subobjectives that define the expected
learning outcome. In most models of teaching, the clear and concise statement of the
objective to the students occurs early in a lesson and helps direct the students through the
learning process. The introduction is what the teacher does to prepare the student for the
learning. Several methods often used to introduce students to the learning objective
include: tying the new learning to past learning or experience; relating the learning to a
real-life situation; establishing meaning for the learning; and inspiring excitement for the
learning.
Instructional Input: The instructional input is the method by which the teacher provides
the learning information to the students. There is no one best way to do this. The models
of teaching illustrate a variety of ways this may occur. Some models rely heavily on
teacher direction while others require greater student inquiry and involvement. In the
lesson design process, the teacher selects different approaches for imparting the
knowledge to students. Within the selected approach, the teacher also seeks out the
opportunity to present the information in a variety of ways to accommodate the diverse
learning styles of the students. For example, the teacher may try to utilize different
modalities – visual, auditory, and tactile/kinesthetic – to present the learning.
Modeling: Modeling is the use of examples and/or demonstration in the lesson design.
A model may be concrete, verbal, pictorial, or behavioral. Modeling highlights the
critical attributes of the concept or skill being taught. Modeling occurs in many forms. It
can be a visual model or blueprint of a product or process. It can be samples of a product
or process. It can be a physical demonstration of a concept or process.
Checking for Understanding: During instruction the teacher builds in opportunities to
verify that students are acquiring information or skills. Generally the teacher will check
for understanding at frequent intervals during a lesson. This is often done through
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signaling techniques, through questioning strategies, and through checking written work.
A skilled teacher uses “checking for understanding” to accomplish a variety of goals.
Among them are: (1) to monitor student progress, (2) to reiterate and clarify key points,
(3) to strengthen student learning by giving an opportunity to demonstrate knowledge or
skill, and (4) to adjust teaching strategies when feedback indicates students are not
achieving the desired level of understanding.
Practice: Student practice occurs in one of two ways – as guided practice or as
independent practice. Both types provide the opportunity to reinforce new information or
a new skill by using it. The difference between guided practice and independent practice
is the amount of teacher supervision that occurs. Guided practice takes place in the
classroom under the monitoring of the teacher. The goal of guided practice is to be sure
that the student is practicing correctly before additional practice is assigned. Independent
practice occurs without teacher monitoring. It may occur in the classroom or outside of
the classroom. Though the teacher may be present or in the vicinity of the student, the
student is performing the practice on his or her own. Independent practice is assigned
only after the teacher is reasonably certain that students can perform the work
independently without errors. Guided practice is often an intermediary step used to avoid
a situation where a student repeatedly practices knowledge or a skill incorrectly.
Independent practice then provides additional practice for reinforcement and mastery.
Closure: Closure refers to the process of summarization of a lesson. It is closely aligned
with checking for understanding; it provides a final review and reiteration of knowledge
and/or skills. The teacher facilitates closure by eliciting from students a complete review
of the lesson – assisting them in putting all the information and/or skills together into a
broader picture of the lesson. Closure also frequently sets the stage for subsequent
lessons.
Evaluation of Learning: Evaluation is an ongoing process in any learning environment.
Short term evaluation of learning occurs as the teacher checks for student understanding
throughout the lesson. Short term evaluation tends to be less formal; nonetheless, it is a
critical part of instruction. The teacher gathers and processes information from students
relative to their understanding. Through this feedback the teacher monitors and adjusts
within the lesson and plans future instruction. Long term evaluation tends to be more
formal. The teacher designs a method for assessing student mastery of the learning.
Testing and portfolio examination are examples of this type of evaluation. All
assessment, both short term and long term, provides valuable information that assists the
teacher in the formation of new objectives and lessons.
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INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES
Instructional practices that are a part of effective classrooms include: learning
environment, teacher-student interaction, engaged learning time, and provision for
individual differences. The effective teacher considers each of these practices and plans
for them as a part of the instructional program.
Learning Environment: The learning environment of a classroom can be subdivided
into four components: classroom management, discipline, instructional organization,
and logistics.
Classroom management includes the daily routines and procedures that are
established so that the classroom functions smoothly with minimal interruption. It
includes guidelines for managerial tasks such as recording attendance, collecting
materials from students, taking lunch counts, and so on.
Discipline refers to the management system the teacher establishes to control
student behavior. Clearly defined and communicated expectations for students are the
first step to successful maintenance of discipline. The next steps are close monitoring and
consistent implementation of expectations for all students. Ultimately the goal of the
teacher is to have students develop intrinsic motivation for self-discipline. Ineffective
classroom discipline has the potential for being a major obstruction to good teaching,
even when the teacher has attended to all other elements of effective instruction.
Instructional organization encompasses the decisions that the teacher makes to
organize the classroom to enhance and facilitate learning. For example, the teacher may
choose to use large group instruction for some objectives while selecting small group for
other objectives. Providing differentiation of instruction is another way that the teacher
may organize instruction.
Logistics in teaching cover many decisions that are of a physical nature. Location
of classroom furniture, supplies, resource materials, and equipment are among the
logistical decisions that the teacher makes. As with instructional organization, the
teacher’s attention to these details in advance can greatly enhance and facilitate
instruction.
Teacher-student Interaction: Teacher-student interaction occurs both formally and
informally in the classroom. It is most effective when it is positive. When it is necessary
for interaction to be corrective, either academically or behaviorally, it should focus
clearly and specifically on the performance that should be corrected with emphasis on
positive results and learning. Some of the indicators of teacher-student interaction are:
methods for checking understanding, questions from students, reinforcement of students,
acknowledgement of student concerns, and active classroom participation.
Engaged Learning Time: Engaged learning time is simply “time on task.” Using as
much of the allocated instructional time as possible for active learning maximizes
learning by students. Active, engaged learning occurs in many ways – teacher
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explanation, classroom discussion, student investigation and research, practice activities,
to name a few. Teachers must carefully guard instructional time for students by avoiding
interruptions and other nonproductive uses of time.
Provision for Individual Differences: Provision for individual differences is another
time honored practice in which teachers engage as they plan for instruction. Students are
individuals; thus, they vary greatly in the ways and rates at which they learn. Students
have different learning styles. Students vary in personality dimensions, informationprocessing styles, social interaction preferences, and environmental preferences.
Students also may exhibit modality preferences – visual, auditory, tactile, and kinesthetic
– in various degrees of strength. Good teaching allows for the differences in learning
styles as well as differences in culture, race, religion, and gender that might affect
learning. Good teaching seeks ways to accommodate the learner differences in order to
maximize learning for all students.
Principles of Learning
There are four principles of learning included in the Salem Instructional Model:
motivation, reinforcement, retention, and transfer. These principles have their basis
in behavioral psychology – a major component of teacher training programs – and can be
used constructively by teachers to increase the likelihood of successful student learning.
Motivation: Motivation is an individual’s need or desire to do or not to do something.
The factors that motivate a student to learn will fall somewhere on a continuum with
extrinsic and intrinsic as the two endpoints. Tangible rewards fall closer to the extrinsic
end of the continuum while intangibles, such as pride in accomplishment, are considered
intrinsic. Ultimately teachers hope to cultivate in their students an intrinsic motivation to
learn for the sense of accomplishment and knowledge that the learning brings. Six
factors that may affect motivation are: level of concern, feeling tone, interest, success,
knowledge of results, and reward. Through manipulation of these factors appropriately,
the teacher can increase student learning.
Level of concern refers to the student’s tension level with respect to the learning.
Too little concern equates to an “I don’t care” attitude; too much concern can
produce crippling anxiety.
Feeling tone can be pleasant (positive), unpleasant (negative), or neutral.
Pleasant feeling tone generally increases motivation to learn. Neutral or absence
of feeling tone does nothing for motivation. Unpleasant or negative feeling tone
may be used to raise level of concern on occasions; however, once the elevation
in level of concern is accomplished, it is best to return to pleasant feeling tone.
Prolonged negative feeling tone has the potential to destroy motivation as well as
produce other unpleasant side effects.
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Interest is an easy motivational factor to understand. All human beings find
learning easier when they are interested in the topic. When the topic is not of
natural interest to the students, the teacher may look for ways to relate it to other
topics or other learning to increase student interest.
Success is a very motivating factor. It is related closely to the degree of difficulty
of learning. If the learning is too difficult for a student, the student is not likely to
meet with success. In turn, the student may begin to feel defeated and lose any
motivation to learn since efforts do not seem to produce any desirable results.
Similarly, if the learning is too easy and the student is not adequately challenged,
success is meaningless and motivation suffers. Success with learning that is
appropriately challenging can be powerful as a motivator to future learning.
Knowledge of results is most effective when the feedback given to a student is
specific and in close proximity to the learning. Most people will abandon a task if
they are not receiving any feedback on their performance. When feedback is
specific, the student knows what is satisfactory and what needs improvement.
Thus the student is more likely to be able to take any necessary corrective action.
Reward is the payoff that the student receives for the learning. Rewards, as
stated earlier, may be extrinsic, intrinsic, or a combination of the two. Many
times learning will produce multiple rewards. For example, a student who does
well in a foreign language class may be invited to participate in a special summer
program at a university. The student’s rewards include the honor of being
selected to participate, financial assistance for the program, a feeling of
accomplishment, to name a few.
Reinforcement: Reinforcement consists of four main concepts: positive reinforcement,
extinction, negative reinforcement, and the schedule of reinforcement. A positive
reinforcer is something that is desired or needed by a learner. A behavior is strengthened
when it is followed immediately by a positive reinforcer. Thus the teacher can increase
the likelihood that a behavior will reoccur by providing positive reinforcement to the
learner. Extinction is the practice of giving no response at all to a behavior so that the
behavior, by not being reinforced at all, will be weakened or extinguished. Negative
reinforcement is used to eliminate or change a behavior by following the behavior with
something that is not desired or needed by the learner. One potential problem with
negative reinforcement is that any behavior that removes the negative reinforcer is
strengthened. Therefore, the teacher must be cautious that the student does not replace
the unwanted behavior with another one that is equally inappropriate. Also some
students who desire attention have their behaviors reinforced even when the attention
they receive is negative. Finally, the teacher uses a schedule of reinforcement to assure
that the behavior or learning will continue. Early in the learning process, frequent and
regular reinforcement of a behavior or learning provides fast results. In order to carry the
behavior or learning over for a longer period of time, the teacher continues to reinforce
the student intermittently.
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Retention: Retention of learning is always a major goal. In addition to reinforcement,
there are at least four variables that teacher can partially control that enhance retention.
They are meaning, degree of original learning, feeling tone, and practice. The more
meaningful the learning is for the student, the more likely the student is to retain the
learning. Similarly, the greater the degree of original learning, the more likely the
student is to retain the learning. Strong feeling tone, either positive or negative, which is
associated with any learning causes the student to remember the learning better. Finally,
the amount that the student practices the learning affects its retention. Questions such as
“how much”, “how long”, “how often”, and “how well” the student practices the learning
are critical to retention.
Transfer: Transfer is the ability of the student to learn in one situation and then to use
that learning, in a modified or generalized form, in other situations. Transfer is a very
powerful tool in learning; it “is the heart and core of problem solving, creative thinking
and all other higher mental processes as well as inventions and artistic products”
(Madeline Hunter). However, transfer can be either positive or negative. Positive
transfer is the use of previous learning to assist in the acquisition of new learning.
Negative transfer occurs when previous learning actually interferes with or prevents the
acquisition of new learning. The teacher can manipulate transfer using four factors –
similarity, association, degree of original learning, and critical attributes.
By
emphasizing common elements that are similar between an older learning and new
learning, the teacher generates transfer. Association generally may be thought of as the
use of examples. Well chosen examples help to increase learning. Sometimes feelings
and beliefs also transfer by association from one learning to another. The greater the
degree of original learning, the more likely it is that knowledge will be transferred from
that learning to any new situation. Identification of critical attributes that are shared by
an old learning and a new one can be used to show relevance and, hence, to cause transfer
of learning to occur.
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GLOSSARY OF SELECTED TERMS
Checking for Understanding refers to the methods used by the teacher to assess and
verify that students are acquiring the desired skills and knowledge.
Closure is the process of reflecting back on and summarizing a learning experience.
Engaged learning time (Time on Task) is the portion of the allocated instructional time
that the student is actively involved in the learning. A major goal in instruction is to
maximize the engaged learning time for the student.
Instructional input refers to the method(s) by which the teacher provides information to
the students.
Modeling is the use of examples and/or demonstrations that may be concrete, verbal,
pictorial, and/or behavioral in order to assist the students in learning.
Motivation is an individual’s need or desire to do or not to do something. Six key
motivators are level of concern, feeling tone, interest, success, knowledge of results, and
reward.
Objective refers to the expected student learning outcome of a lesson expressed in
measurable terms.
Practice is the opportunity to build and/or reinforce a new skill or learning. Guided
practice is practice that occurs under close supervision by the teacher in order to insure
that the practice is done correctly. Independent practice is practice that occurs without
teacher monitoring with the goal of reinforcing a skill after the student has demonstrated
that he/she can practice with little to no likelihood of errors.
Reinforcement is the process of using or withholding responses, positive or negative, to
a behavior in order to strengthen or weaken the behavior.
Retention is the ability of the student to commit learning to long-term memory for future
use. Key factors that influence retention are meaning, degree of original learning, feeling
tone, and practice.
Transfer is the ability of the student to learn in one situation and then to use that learning
in other situations.
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SUGGESTED REFERENCES
Books by Madeline Hunter (available from Corwin Press):
Mastery Teaching
Motivation Theory for Teachers
Retention Theory for Teachers
Teach More – Faster!
Teach for Transfer
Aide-ing in Education
Improved Instruction
Improving Your Child’s Behavior
Parent-Teacher Conferencing
Mastering Coaching and Supervision
Goodlad, John I.. A Place Called School. McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1984.
Creating Effective Schools. Holmes Beach, Florida: Learning Publications, Inc., 1982.
Time on Task, American Association of School Administrators, 1982.
Dyrli, Odvard Egil, ‘Gil Dyrli’s “Sweet Sixteen”’, Curriculum Administrator, November,
1999, pp. 60-67.
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