Color and Implicit Memory
RUNNING HEAD: COLOR AND IMPLICIT MEMORY
Effects of Color Variation on Implicit Memory
Student Author Name(s) Here
Psychology Department
Wheaton College, IL
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Color and Implicit Memory
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Abstract
The primary aim of this study is to explore the relationship between implicit memory and
color retention. This will be determined using an in-between subjects design with five treatment
groups. Subjects will be shown a series of twenty different pictures and record a rating of
pleasantness for each one. After a transition/distraction phase, the subjects will be shown blackand-white outlines of five of the previous pictures and asked to record the first color that comes
to mind. Color recall accuracy will be examined to determine whether or not specific colors
register in the implicit memory better than others. The independent variable image will be
presented as a different color (red, green, yellow, blue, black) in each treatment group. It is
difficult to hypothesize expected results because of a lack of empirical data regarding this subject
area. However, the results of this study could have significant effects on populations with
normal levels of implicit memory but decreased capacities for explicit memory. Two such
populations include the elderly and amnesia patients.
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Effects of Color Variation on Implicit Memory
Implicit
memory is demonstrated when experiences in the past “facilitate performance on
a task that does not require conscious or intentional recollection of those experiences” (Schacter,
1987, p.501). The first reference to an implicit memory phenomenon is attributed to philosopher
Decartes in 1649 (Schacter, 1987). However, it is Main de Biran of France who explored the
matter more deeply in his writings entitled The Influence of Habit on the Faculty of Thinking in
1804. His main premise was that over periods of time, habits are performed both automatically
and unconsciously. From his observations, memory can be categorized as one of three types:
mechanical (implicit), sensitive (implicit), and representative (explicit). This classification
system serves as a precursor to the current distinct memory systems theory that outlines the
differences between implicit and explicit/conscious memory (Schacter, 1987).
In the late 19th and 20th century, Prince and Ebbinghaus produced the first empirical
observations regarding implicit memory (Schacter, 1987). Ebbinghaus developed the savings
paradigm after noting a 24 hour retention interval for objects that he had no conscious
recollection of studying (Schacter, 1987). The most prevalent view of this time period was that
implicit memory was not strong enough to go beyond the threshold of activation required for
explicit memory or conscious recollection (Schacter, 1987). Currently, there are two general
theories regarding implicit and explicit memory.
In a study by Roediger (1990), these theories are referred to as the distinct memory
systems theory and the processing theory. The distinct memory systems theory is based on
evidence collected from studies on amnesiac patients (Cohen and Squire, 1980). In the study,
brain damage of the patients had destroyed their ability to consciously recollect. However, their
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capacity to unconsciously recollect was comparable to normal patient levels. From this, two
separate systems were classified: declarative/explicit and procedural/implicit. In general, the
declarative system is concerned with “verbalizing knowledge” (Roediger, 1990, p.1048). The
procedural or implicit system aids in skilled behaviors without the need for conscious
recollection. These behaviors include motor skills, priming, and classical conditioning.
The processing theory accounts for the dissimilarity of implicit and explicit test results by
reasoning that it is an indicator of different processes of operation within the brain. Also known
as the transfer appropriate procedures approach, it aims to show that memory tests require
different processes and the appropriate procedure is chosen based on the specific type of test
(Roediger, 1990). Two main assumptions underlie this theory. First is the encoding specificity
hypothesis which states that when the cognitive operations required at encoding are more similar
to the operations required at retrieval, performance is most accurate (Tulving and Thomson,
1973). The benefit comes with the overlap of cognitive operations or processes. Second is that
explicit and implicit tests of memory call for unique retrieval operations and benefit from
different types of processing during learning. In general, explicit tests are conceptual and thus
more sensitive to conceptual variation and implicit tests are perceptual and in the same way more
sensitive to perceptual variations (Roediger, 1990).
In relation to these two rather broad theories, much experimentation has been done in the
past fifty years. Implicit research throughout the 20th century has been divided into five broad
research areas which include: savings during relearning, effects of subliminally encoded stimuli,
learning and conditioning without awareness, repetition priming effects, and implicit memory in
amnesia (Schacter, 1987). This experiment will focus primarily on the area of repetition priming
effects.
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Repetition or direct priming is concerned with the “processing of a stimulus as a function
of a recent encounter with the same stimulus” (Schacter, 1987, p.506). For example,
Mecklenbrauker and Wippich (1998) demonstrated that priming during the test phase leads to
the previous/correct color from the study phase being chosen more frequently for previously
shown items than for new items. Information involving a repeated stimuli was more accurate
than a new stimuli. Picture naming can also be used to demonstrate priming. In a study by Cave,
Bost, and Cobb (1996), participants were presented with pictorial stimuli in a study session. In
the later test session, participants named the previously viewed stimuli faster than the new
stimuli.
Current research infers that repetition priming follows the distinct memory systems
theory. It is suggested that priming is processed by brain regions outside of those primarily
involved in formation of explicit memories. One explanation is that priming is mediated in the
IT or inferotemporal cortex (Cave et. al., 1996). In further support of this theory is evidence that
implies implicit memory is not merely associated with perception but is also concerned with
conception (Cave et. al., 1996). If priming was a representation of modifications in early stages
of perceptual processing, then the amount of priming would be dependent on the exact repetition
of the physical attributes of the stimulus from study to test. However, a recent study showed that
priming is most “sensitive to the stimulus properties that are most relevant for the task at hand”
(Cave et. al., 1996, p.650). In this case, priming focused on the attributes associated with object
shape, not color (Cave et. al., 1996).
Another study providing evidence for this theory was conducted by Ostergaard and
Davidoff (1985). They concluded that because “…colors can obviously be named in the absence
of relevant shape information, there must be a direct link between color sensory analysis and the
Color and Implicit Memory
color lexicon” (p.585). Color is stored as an associative network of attributes rather than as a
part of the pictorial encoding for objects. Similar conclusions were also shown in a Siple and
Springer study (1983). Accuracy was not effected with a change in context which implies that
memory for object color is an “independently accessible feature of memory representation”
(p.363). Therefore, this experiment will be working within the framework of the distinct
memory systems model.
Hanna and Remington (1996) concluded that “color confers an advantage either when it
is strongly associated with an object’s identity or when sufficient processing time is allowed that
the object enjoys conceptual, not just perceptual processing” (p.323). Cave, Bost and Cobb
(1996), found priming to be insensitive to changes in color on tests of implicit picture memory.
Although, significant priming was shown, response times for naming pictures that stayed the
same color did not differ from pictures that changed colors. From this study, it is shown that
color variation does not effect the occurrence of significant priming.
A study conducted by Mecklenbrauker and Wippich (1998) specifically examined the
effects of color on implicit memory tests. Participants were asked to rate the pleasantness of 20
colored items during the study phase. Later in the test phase, participants were given a colorchoice task with black-and-white pictures of the previously viewed items. Data results indicated
there was a significant preference for the previously seen colors. This experiment showed a
preference for previously seen colors, however, it is uncertain if some colors are preferred more
than others. This is the question that this experiment will address. The procedure is similar in
several respects to the Wippich and Mecklenbrauker study, however the emphasis is on
examining the aspect of color preference.
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Rationale
The issue of color preference and implicit memory has some important implications.
First, evidence shown thus far indicates that priming ability is not affected by age. An
experiment conducted by Graf in 1990 showed that although explicit memory increases in early
life and decreases in later life, implicit memory remains quite constant. If there are specific
colors that prime more accurately, this could benefit the aging population as well as patients
suffering from amnesia. As mentioned earlier, amnesiacs have normal implicit memory abilities.
In a more far-reaching sense, this research could also effect the world of consumer
advertising. The average television watcher or magazine browser does not consciously study
advertisements but rather simply glances at them. If there are specific colors that are stored more
effectively in the implicit memory, this could benefit retail corporations substantially.
Method
Participants
The participants will be undergraduate student volunteers at Wheaton College in Illinois
who are enrolled in the Introduction to Psychology course. These students will earn extra credit
for their psychology class in exchange for participating in this study. The goal is to enlist the
participation of 50 students with an equal number of males and females.
Apparatus
The main materials used for this experiment will include 24 colored images and 5 blackand-white images of non-color specific items. The unspecificity of color is to account for the
confounding variable of color diagnostic items such as a yellow banana (Hanna and Remington,
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1996). One of the images will serve as the independent variable which will be represented in
five colors. The five colors used will include: green, red, blue, yellow and black (control). The 5
black-and-white images will be taken from the original colored images. The independent
variable image will be included in the 5 black-and-white images. All the items will be displayed
in a similar fashion on 17in. by 11in. white poster board. Participants will be tested in a lab room
containing a conference table with an adequate number of chairs, pencils, a stopwatch, 2 data
collection sheets and 1 questionnaire for each subject, and an easel to hold the poster board
images.
Procedure
Participants will be randomly divided into five treatment groups: red, yellow, green, blue,
and control (black). Participants will sign up for a specific time to participate in the experiment
and will be notified to confirm their appointment. Efforts will be made to have equal numbers of
males and females in each treatment condition.
First, subjects will be presented with an informed consent document (see Appendix A)
and will also receive a brief description of the study’s expectations and procedure. The “study”
phase will consist of a 15 second viewing of each of the 20 colored images. The order of
presentation will be identical in each treatment group. The fifteenth image presented will be the
independent variable. This will be the same image with a variation of color for each treatment
group. Participants will be asked to record ratings of pleasantness on a scale of 1 to 5 for each
image on data collection sheet #1 (see Appendix B).
After data sheets are collected, each participant will receive and complete questionnaire
#1 (see Appendix C). This phase has two purposes. It serves as a distractor/transition phase
between study and test. And, it also serves as a means to collect the favorite color of each
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participant. This is to account for the possible confounding variable of implicitly remembering
one’s favorite color better than other colors (Varma, 1992).
The last phase will be the “test” phase. Participants will be presented with five of the
previous images in black-and-white outline form. Each image will be viewed for 15 seconds and
the independent variable image will be presented third in this final group. Subjects will be asked
to record the first color that comes to mind on data collection sheet #2 (see Appendix D).
After data sheets are gathered, the experiment facilitator will debrief each treatment
group using the attached debriefing form (see Appendix E). Each participant will receive a copy
of this form.
This procedure will be replicated for each of the five treatment groups. A set of three
data sheets will be collected from each participant. In order to trace each set back to a single
participant, a coding system will be utilized.
Proposed Statistics
Because of the nominal nature of the data, a chi-square test and the corresponding critical
values will be used to access the significance of the experimental data. There is one independent
variable and one statistical analysis will be run.
Expected Results
It is expected that there will be no significant difference between the color recall of red,
green, yellow, blue and black. Although evidence is indecisive, there are two primary reasons for
holding this null hypothesis. First is the conclusion drawn from Cave, Bost, and Cobb’s study
(1996). Namely, that the priming for picture naming was not affected by color. If color variation
does not effect picture naming, it can be infered that it will not effect a test of color preference.
Second is the anatomy of the eye and its processing structures in the brain. The Young-
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Helmhotz trichromatic theory as well as the Herring Opponent theory view color coding as
univerisal for all colors. Their thoeries indicate that specific colors are not physiologically
perceived better than others (Carlson, 1999).
This line of thought compliments the distinct memory system theory well. The
experimenters expect implicit memory to be processed identically for each color variation. This
will result in empirical data which shows no significant differences. The dependent variable, or
the color recall of the independent variable image in the test phase, will show no significant
variation.
Even though there is not a significant difference expected, this experiment is necessary
because of the inconclusive evidence and the potential implications. If a specific color is
processed in the implicit memory better than others, the benefits for patients with amnesia and
the elderly will be considerable.
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References
Carlson, Neil R. (1999). Foundations of Physiological Psychology (4th ed.). Boston:
Allyn and Bacon.
Cave, B., Bost, P.R., & Cobb, R.E. (1996). Effects of color and pattern on implicit and
explicit tests of memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,
22, 639-653.
Cohen, N., and Squire, L. R. (1980). Preserved learning and retention of pattern
analyzing skills in amnesia: Dissociation of knowing how and knowing that. Science, 210, 207210.
Graf, P. (1990). Life-span changes in implicit and explicit memory. Bulletin of the
Psychonomic Society, 28, 353-358.
Hanna, A. & Remington, R. (1996). The representation of color and form in long-term
memory. Memory & Cognition, 24, 322-330.
Ostergaard, A.L. & Davidoff, J.B. (1985). Some effects of color and form on naming and
recognition of objects. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition,
11, 579-587.
Roediger, H.L. (1990). Implicit Memory: Retention without remembering. American
Psychologist, 45, 1043-1056.
Saito, M. (1996). A comparative study of color preference in Japan, China, and
Indonesia, with emphasis on preference for white. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 83, 115-128.
Schacter, D.L. (1987). Implicit memory: History and current status. Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 13, 501-518.
Color and Implicit Memory 12
Siple, P. & Springer, R. (1983). Memory and preference for the colors of objects.
Perception and Psychophysics, 34, 363-370.
Tulving, E. & Thomson, D.M. (1973). Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in
episodic memory. Psychological Review, 80, 352-373.
Varma, V. (1992). Perceptual appeal in advertisement. Indian Journal of Behavior, 16,
26-33.
Wippich, W. & Mecklenbraeuker, S. (1998). Effects of color on perceptual and
conceptual tests of implicit memory. Psychologische Forschung (Psychological Research), 61,
285-294.
Color and Implicit Memory 13
Appendix A
Informed Consent Document
Researchers: Student Author Name(s) Here
Project Adviser: Dr. William M. Struthers, Ph.D. Phone 630-752-7046
Email William.M.Struthers@wheaton.edu.
The purpose of this research is to explore the various effects of color. This will be done
by viewing various colored images and recording a rating of pleasantness. The test will consist
of three phases. The total duration will be 20 minutes. Each participant will receive extra credit
for Psychology 101. The final result of this research will be used to complete an experimental
requirement for Psychology 369, Experimental Psychology at Wheaton College.
Upon your consent, the experiment will be conducted and all information collected will
remain anonymous. A code system will be used to trace the three separate data sheets back to a
single participant, however, the identity of the participant will remain anonymous.
Please understand that you are free to withdraw from active participation from this study
at any time and to require that all records of your participation be either returned to you or
destroyed so as to prevent their use.
I, _____________________, agree to participant in the study above. I understand that I
may withdraw at any time during the experiment for any reason and still receive full extra credit.
Signature:
_______________________
Date: _____________
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Appendix B
Data Collection Sheet #1
1.) _____
2.) _____
3.) _____
4.) _____
5.) _____
6.) _____
7.) _____
8.) _____
9.) _____
10.) _____
11.) _____
12.) _____
13.) _____
14.) _____
15.) _____
16.) _____
17.) _____
18.) _____
19.) _____
20.) _____
(Please fill in each blank with a rating of 1-5)
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Appendix C
Questionnaire #1
*Please check one answer or fill in each of the following questions*
1.) What is your gender?
Male ___
Female ___
2.) What year are you at Wheaton?
___ Freshman
___ Junior
___ Sophomore
___ Senior
3.) What is your declared major?
_______________
4.) What is your favorite Wheaton Thunder team to watch?
___ Wrestling
___ Volleyball
___ Soccer
___ Football
___ Basketball
___ Softball
5.) If you could change the colors of Wheaton’s mascot, what would they be?
___ no change
___ blue and black
___ yellow and blue
___ red and blue
___ green and blue
6.) What is your favorite color?
___ Black
___ Red
___ Green
___ Blue
___ Yellow
7.) What is your favorite type of outfit?
___ dress or suit
___ sweatshirt and warm-up pants
___ big sweater and comfortable jeans
___ button-up shirt and khakis
8.) What is your favorite flavor of ice cream at the Stupe?
________________________
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Appendix D
Data Collection Sheet #2
*Please record the first color that comes to mind*
*Yellow, Blue, Green, Red or Black*
1.) ____________
2.) ____________
3.) ____________
4.) ____________
5.) ____________
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Appendix E
Debriefing Form: Effects of Color Variation on Implicit Memory
Thank you for your willingness to participate in this study. Your collected data will
remain anonymous and will be used to access the relationship between color and implicit
memory. The study you have just participated in was designed to determine whether or not there
are certain colors that are retained in the implicit memory better than others. Implicit memory
has been described as retention without learning. For example, in this study, you were asked to
rate the level of pleasantness of the 20 colored images. There was no conscious retention of the
various colors displayed. Your implicit memory was tested when you were asked which color
came to mind first for the black-and-white outlines. Each of the five treatment groups contained
the independent variable image in one of the following colors: red, yellow, green, blue and
control (black). This image was also included in the second group of black-and-white outlines.
Collected data will be assessed to determine if a specific color is implicitly remembered with
more accuracy than others.
We expect our results to show that there is no significant difference in the accuracy of
implicit memory with color variation. However, the experiment is being conducted because of
the important implications if color preference is shown. Unlike explicit memory, implicit
memory has been shown to remain constant throughout a lifespan (Graf, 1990). If a specific
color is processed better than others, this will have an impact on both amnesia patients and the
aging population in general.
Because we are collecting data through Thanksgiving break, it is imperative that the
details of this study remain confidential until that time. We are seeking to eliminate as many
confounding variables as possible in order to have accurate data. We would appreciate you not
mentioning this to any of your classmates, even if they are not planning on participating in this
study until after Thanksgiving break.
We hope that this has been a worthwhile experience for you, and thank you again for your
willingness to participate. If you have any additional questions, please ask them at this time. If
questions arise later, please feel free to contact our research advisor, Dr. Struthers at 630-7527046.