Beef Cattle Farming
The importance of beef cattle to Canadian agriculture has
increased steadily since the Second World War. There are about
86 500 beef cattle farms across the country; of those, more than
70% are cow-calf operations.
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Cattle Farming
A cattle farm in Saskatchewan (courtesy Kate Johnson).
Feed Lot in Saskatchewan.
These cattle are being grain-fed for about three months in
preparation for slaughter. They are housed in separate pens to
segregate the cattle by size, ownership, and sex. Image:
Agriculture Canada.
Farming Types, Map
Beef Cattle Farming
Cattle (family Bovidae, genus Bos) were first brought to Canada
by French settlers. In 1677 there were 3107 cattle in NEW
FRANCE; in 1698, 10 209; by the mid-18th century, 50 013.
Cattle were valuable as a food source (milk, cheese, butter, meat)
and for their hides, used in LEATHERWORKING. Cattle
farming spread across the country with settlement, and
RANCHING became particularly important in the rangelands of
western Canada.
The importance of beef cattle to Canadian agriculture has
increased steadily since the Second World War. There are about
86 500 beef cattle farms across the country; of those, more than
70% are cow-calf operations. The total livestock on Canadian
farms is estimated at more than 15 million cattle and calves
(including 1.6 million milk cows). Of these, 5.3 million are beef
cows. Canada's beef cattle industry is the largest source of farm
cash receipts. Farm cash receipts from the sale of cattle and
calves total about $6.5 billion annually. The 1.3 billion kg of
beef that the country produces annually contributes between $15
and $20 billion to its economy. About 3.5 million cattle are
slaughtered annually across the country.
Most of Canada's veal and young beef comes from a 3-phase
system involving the cow-calf enterprise to produce weanling
calves, the stocker or holding enterprise and the finishing
(usually feedlot) operation. Two or three of these operations may
be combined on a single farm or ranch. The triple combination,
most common where breeding-herd size is small, is often a
subsidiary enterprise of a mixed farming operation.
Cow-Calf Enterprise
The cow-calf enterprise involves maintaining a breeding herd to
produce the heaviest weight of weaned calves possible. Cows are
selected for their mothering ability, beef quality traits and other
desired characteristics. Mating takes place in early summer and
peak calving occurs in the following spring. On most farms, the
entire cow-calf process takes place in open pastures, where the
cattle graze and the calves nurse. Once the calves reach 225-275
kg (500-600 pounds), they are weaned from their mothers and
are put on a forage-based diet.
There are over 60 000 cow-calf farms across the country.
Canada's beef-cow herd is estimated at approximately 5 million
head. Breeding-herd size varies considerably, from a few cows
on small mixed farms to several hundred in large range herds.
The average Canadian beef-cow farm counts 61 head. Fortyeight percent of the beef-cow herd is now located on farms with
more than 122 head. Large operations account for 13% of all
beef cattle farms and are found in the 4 western provinces, where
over two-thirds of Canada's breeding herds are located.
However, about one-sixth of Canada's supply of veal and young
beef comes from unneeded male and female calves of dairy
herds, most of which are located in Ontario and Québec.
The western emphasis on beef production probably stems from
the fact that the cow-calf operation is usually based on a lowcost pasture resource, eg, sparsely vegetated areas, nonarable
land (12 ha required per cow), or very intensively cultivated and
irrigated pastures (0.5 ha per cow). Some of the largest
operations are found on predominantly natural pastures requiring
8 ha or more per cow. In such areas, the winter feed supply may
be purchased but most often comes from improved native
meadows or intensively managed arable land.
The female side of the breeding herd usually consists of cows
and heifers of a single breed, or the female crosses of breeds that
are likely to produce hybrid vigour in the various maternal
characteristics such as milking and mothering ability.
Performance-tested, purebred bulls from breeds noted for their
post-weaning growth and carcass characteristics make up the
male side of the herd (seeANIMAL BREEDING).
Shorthorn
The Shorthorn, originating in northeast England and southern
Scotland, was the first beef breed to be established and the first
to arrive in Canada (1832). Its superior growth and fattening
propensity (over the nondescript cattle of the day) quickly made
it popular. Reds, roans, whites, and red and whites are common
colours in purebred herds, reds being the most popular. Mature
cows weigh over 600 kg and bulls, 900 kg. A dual-purpose or
milking Shorthorn strain has frequently been used in beef herds.
A polled (hornless) mutant of the breed has become popular.
Hereford
Originating in the county of that name, the Hereford is a wellmuscled, hardy breed. Well known for its foraging abilities
under difficult range conditions, the breed quickly established
itself as western Canada's main commercial breed. Its attractive,
predominantly white face, underline and other white markings
on a red body became a trademark ("white face" or "baldy")
among cattle producers. A polled strain was developed in
Canada and the US from mutants.
Aberdeen Angus
The Aberdeen Angus, a smoothly finished black-coloured
Scottish breed, has persistently found a place in beef production.
Noted for its ease of calving and the easier delivery of Angussired calves, the breed also has other valuable characteristics in
crosses (eg, early maturity, marbling quality of meat). A
frequently occurring red mutant has now been developed as a
separate strain.
Other British breeds, including Galloway (polled and dun, black
or white-belted black), Black Welsh, Lincoln Red (of Shorthorn
origins), South Devon, Devon and Luing, have appeared over the
years but have not been significant in Canadian beef production.
Over the past 3 decades, the emphasis on growth and the hybrid
vigour produced by crossing has resulted in considerable interest
in continental breeds ("exotics"), especially since new quarantine
regulations were adopted to facilitate importation.
Charolais
The Charolais, a very large white or creamy white breed of eastcentral France, was one of the earliest introduced. Its exceptional
growth rate and muscling make it particularly valuable in
crossing. Mature bulls average over 1000 kg and cows, 700 kg.
A polled strain is being developed.
Limousin
A yellow-brown horned breed about the size of the Hereford, the
Limousin was the second continental breed to arrive in Canada
and is valued for its excellent ratio of lean to fat and bone, a
characteristic persisting in crosses.
Simmental
The Simmental, one of the most popular European breeds, is a
dual-purpose (predominantly dairy) breed. Of Swiss origin, this
large red and white breed is known under various names
throughout Europe. For beef production, the valuable
characteristics are rapid growth and milk production.
Other continental breeds popular in cross-breeding are MaineAnjou, a large red and white breed from northwest France;
Blonde d'Aquitaine, from southern France; 3 white breeds from
Italy, ie, Chianina, equal in growth rate and mature size to the
Charolais, and its smaller sister breeds, Romagnola and
Marchigiana; Gelbvieh, a large, red German breed; and Salers, a
smaller red breed of central France.
Summer grazing is usually controlled by a good distribution of
watering facilities and trace-mineralized salt licks, pasture
rotation, or movable electric fences. Calves, "identified" at birth,
run with cows. If not naturally polled, they are usually dehorned
and vaccinated against common diseases (eg, blackleg) early in
the pasture season. Male calves are generally castrated. If range
is limited or extra gain is economically warranted, calves may
have access to grain.
Breeding takes place in summer, preferably during a 6-week to
2-month period when cows are exposed to fertility-tested bulls
(approximately one bull to 30 cows). Yearling heifers
(approximately 15 months old), if well grown (300 kg), are bred
to sires known to produce easily delivered calves. High
conception rates are extremely important but seldom exceed 8590%. Calves are weaned from early October to mid-November,
usually just before winter feeding.
At 6 months, calves from British breeds and their crosses usually
average 200 kg for males and 185 kg for females. Earlier-born
calves or crosses with "exotics" may be 50-100 kg heavier. Male
calves and those females not needed for breeding are transferred
to stocker operations, as are cows that failed to become pregnant
or produced poorer calves.
Wintering requires feeding in most areas, although pasture or
cash crop residues may be used, weather permitting. In some
areas, eg, the CHINOOK belt, winter grazing of mature herds on
specially reserved pastures is normal. Feed is supplied only
under severe weather conditions and before calving. The herd is
usually broken into 3 or 4 groups so that replacement heifer
calves, pregnant yearling heifers and 2-year-olds expecting their
first calves can be fed to facilitate growth.
In large herds, bulls are usually fed and managed separately. In
the smaller herds, they may be allowed to run with the mature
and pregnant cows. Winter feed is usually home-grown hay or
silage from GRASSES, legumes or CEREAL CROPS. Grain and
protein concentrates may augment poor-quality feeds; mineral
mixtures and vitamin A supplements are the main purchased
feeds. The average cow will consume 2% of its body weight in
dry feed (eg, hay) per day; hence, wintering a mature cow
normally requires 2 t of feed.
Stocker Operation
The stocker operation is normally attached to the cow-calf or the
finishing enterprises, being essentially a period of growth
between weaning and the finishing phase for slaughter (6-12
months). It is roughage- and pasture-based, aimed at getting as
much efficient youthful growth of skeleton and muscle as
possible. As a single enterprise, it is highly speculative and is
usually a "grasser" operation for individuals with ample pasture
but no winter feed. These farmers buy wintered steer and heifer
calves in spring, and then resell them in late summer or fall to
feedlot operators.
Finishing Operation
Finishing, the final step in preparing animals for slaughter, aims
to increase body weight and value. While some cow-calf
operators may carry out this enterprise after a stocker phase for
their own calves, most finishing is now done in specially
designed units, holding several hundred or thousands of animals.
Some farmers, eg, a few in Ontario, traditionally used the feedlot
to enhance the value of their home-grown crops and to provide a
winter occupation. Larger units may be equipped with feed-
preparation mills and most use mixing and unloading trucks to
distribute the feed in long troughs.
Profits arise from 2 sources: price margin, ie, the difference
between the buying and selling price (the original 300 kg weight
of a steer purchased for $1.80/kg and sold for $2.00/kg has
produced a profit of $60.00 through the $0.20/kg price margin);
and feed margin, ie, the difference between the cost of a
kilogram of gain and the selling price of that gain. Thus, if it cost
$1.90/kg to put on 200 kg in the feedlot and the 500 kg finished
steer sold for $2.00/kg, the operator has had a gain of $20.00
through a positive $0.10/kg feed margin.
Astute and fortunate buying and selling may govern pricemargin profits, but feed margin is dependent on cattle that are
efficient users of feed and on low-cost rations. Calves 6-8
months old are the most efficient converters of feed (6-8 units of
feed per unit gain) but are the slowest gainers (1.0-1.1 kg/day)
and require the longest feeding period. Yearlings are less
efficient (8-9 units of feed per unit gain) but gain faster (1.1-1.3
kg/day) and usually require 140 days in the feedlot. Heifers
usually gain slightly more slowly in the feedlot and finish at
lighter weights.
The key in finishing is high-energy feed (eg, grains of BARLEY,
CORN and, to some extent, WHEAT and OATS) fed with bulky
roughages (eg, corn silage, hay, straws). In local areas, some
refuse or byproducts (eg, distillers' slops, brewers' grains, BEET
pulp and molasses, milling and canning crop residues) may form
the basis of less efficient but profitable feeds. Lower-quality
feeds are usually used in the first part of the finishing period. As
the animal increases in weight, each new unit of gain requires
more or better feed, and higher-energy feed is needed to produce
economical gains.
In most parts of Canada, finishing cattle on grass alone is not
economical, as top grades can seldom be reached because of the
yellow colour of the fat in most breeds or the lack of sufficient
fat covering in yearling or younger cattle. It is very effective and
more economical if the last 60 days are spent in dry lot.
In spite of the vagaries of price fluctuations and increasing costs,
beef farming has persisted, as beef is the meat preferred by most
consumers. Over the long term, it has produced reasonable
returns; however, since the annual operating costs are high,
because of the large capital involved in land and cattle, many
operators cannot withstand years of low returns and high interest
rates.