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Radio Instrument Flight 01 Simulator
DISCUSS ......................................................................................................................................................................2
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
TACAN PROCEDURES ........................................................................................................................................2
USE OF COURSE DEVIATION INDICATOR (CDI)................................................................................................... 6
USE OF HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR (HSI).............................................................................................7
40 DEGREES LOCK-OFF .......................................................................................................................................8
CONE OF CONFUSION ..........................................................................................................................................8
TACAN AND VOR GROUND AND AIRBORNE CHECKPOINTS ...............................................................................9
DEMONSTRATE ...................................................................................................................................................... 10
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.
K.
OPERATION OF TACAN NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT ........................................................................................... 10
TACAN ORIENTATION ..................................................................................................................................... 14
TACAN TRACKING .......................................................................................................................................... 15
TACAN RADIAL INTERCEPTS ........................................................................................................................... 16
TACAN ARCING .............................................................................................................................................. 19
TACAN POINT-TO-POINT NAVIGATION ............................................................................................................ 20
TACAN HOLDING (STATION AND NON-STATION SIDE) ..................................................................................... 21
TACAN GROUND SPEED CHECK ....................................................................................................................... 35
TACAN APPROACH .......................................................................................................................................... 35
TACAN MISSED APPROACH ............................................................................................................................. 37
INSTRUMENT AUTOROTATION TO TOUCHDOWN ................................................................................................ 39
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Discuss
TACAN procedures
ARCING APPROACH (T-34C RI FTI 3950)
[Brackets indicate editing for TH-57]
NIFM Chapter 20, "Low Altitude Approach Procedures;" and Chapter 21, "Tactical Air
Navigation (TACAN)."
A. Amplification - An arcing approach makes use of an arcing maneuver to position the
aircraft inbound on the final approach course. Arcing approaches are normally identified
by VOR/DME or TACAN in the approach plate margin meaning DME is required. The
margin identification may not require DME if an arcing maneuver is depicted in addition to
a procedure turn to establish the aircraft on final approach course. However, when arcing
to final, DME is required.
ARCING SPEED RULES
I.
If holding at the IAF, cleared for the approach AND:
(1) If the distance from the IAF to the final approach course (FAC) is over 45 radials,
maintain cruise airspeed until 30 radials from the FAC.
(2) If the distance from the IAF to the FAC is 45 radials or less, the complete arc will be
flown at [90] knots.
II. If you hit the IAF at cruise airspeed (no prior holding), cleared for the approach, AND:
(1) If the distance from the IAF to the FAC is over 30 radials, maintain cruise airspeed
until 30 radials from the FAC.
(2) If the distance from the IAF to the FAC is 30 radials or less, transition to [90] knots at
the IAF (IAW 6 T's).
III. If the term "NO PT" is displayed along the arc, the complete arc will be flown at cruise
airspeed regardless of the arc length. When in a position 5 NM from the FAF on the FAC
transition to [90 knots]. DME Provides more accurate fixing of an aircraft's position during
an approach because it is not affected by wind, unlike the timing used on a pure VOR
approach.
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B. Procedure LEADING THE TURN AT THE IAF
When clearance for the
approach is issued, ATC
expects an immediate turn
in the shortest direction to
intercept the initial
approach course upon
reaching the IAF.
Clearance for the
approach does not include
clearance for the holding
airspace. However,
normal lead points may be
used to intercept the
course. If you are
approaching the IAF on an
acute angle, you may
need to maneuver the
aircraft for a more
favorable alignment prior
to starting the approach.
MANEUVERING AIRSPACE is airspace used to allow the aircraft to provide favorable
alignment onto the Initial and Intermediate approach course.
If "hitting the IAF" at an acute angle with a requirement for over a 90° turn onto the IAF (or
arc), maneuvering airspace is recommended.
If maneuvering is desired, first obtain clearance from ATC since clearance for the approach
does not include clearance for use of holding or maneuvering airspace. ATC may assign an
area and boundary for the maneuver, i.e.
"Maneuver NW of JAE between 10 - 12 DME." - In this case, the pilot would conduct his
maneuver within this area.
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Since there are no set procedures on how to conduct this maneuver, the following
"techniques" are recommended. Seek the advice of your instructor for various circumstances.
1. If a holding pattern is depicted at the IAF, the pilot should "request one turn in
holding". Remember, you are not actually entering into the holding pattern for a delay
- therefore your airspeed would remain at cruise airspeed during the maneuver. Once
the turn in holding is complete, continue to track inbound to the IAF on the Initial
approach course. At the IAF, perform the "6 T's".
2. If no holding pattern is depicted at the IAF, a teardrop type maneuver is preferred.
Turn to a heading 30° away from the Initial Approach course radial, time for 30 - 45
seconds, while maintaining cruise airspeed. At the end of your "outbound timing"
make a turn to intercept the Initial approach course inbound. TAIL-RADIAL-TURN. At
the IAF perform the "6 T's".
While proceeding Point-to-Point to the IAF, ensure the proper course is set in the IND-350
that will be used to identify the IAF.
1. At the IAF:
a. TIME - Not applicable.
b. TURN - To intercept and track inbound to the arc on the depicted course. If there
is no short inbound segment from the IAF to the arc, turn onto the arc and begin
arcing procedures.
c.
TIME - Not applicable.
d. TRANSITION - If a descent is required perform a terminal descent to the
minimum altitude for this segment or accelerate to normal cruise if no descent is
required.
NOTE: On different approaches the transition at the IAF could involve a descent, a
reduction in airspeed or both.
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(1) If the radial defining the IAF is within 30 radials of the final/intermediate
approach course. Slow to [90] knots and descend if required.
(2) If the radial defining the IAF is greater than 30 radials of the final/intermediate
approach course, maintain cruise airspeed, and:
(a) If descent required - perform a terminal descent.
(b) No descent required - maintain cruise power, airspeed and altitude.
(3) If you come within 30 radials of the FAC while in a terminal descent continue
the terminal descent. 50'prior to level off altitude start raising the nose to slow
to [90] knots. Approaching [90] knots add power and re-trim.
e. TWIST - Ensure that the inbound course is set in the [HSI/CDI]; intercept the
course inbound. If there is no short inbound segment to the arc, set the FAC in
the [HSI/CDI].
f.
TALK - report initial approach fix (IAF) inbound if requested by ATC.
2. Using the proper lead point, turn to intercept and maintain the arc. This step may
occur before the above steps are completed. Once established on the arc, twist in the
final approach course.
3. 30 radials prior to the Final Approach Course (FAC), slow to [90] knots. (Remember if
the term "NO PT" is displayed along the arc, maintain cruise airspeed until 5 NM from
the FAF on the final approach course).
4. Anticipate interception of the final approach course referencing the tail of the TACAN
Needle and the CDI while on the arc. Remember, this is almost a 90° intercept.
NOTE: On approach charts, when the arc-to-final angle exceeds 90°, a published lead
radial (designated “LR-XXX”), which provides approximately 2 miles of lead, may be
provided as an advisory point, for turning onto the inbound course. For this reason,
published lead radials shall not be used by [TH-57C] aircraft. The pilot should
calculate the lead radial used to commence the turn onto the inbound course.
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Use of course deviation indicator (CDI)
COURSE DEVIATION INDICATOR KDI-206 (C) (NATOPS 18.16)
The CDI (Figure 18-12) is located on the copilot instrument panel (Figure 2-3). The CDI
displays tacan, VOR, LOC, and GS relative bearing information received from the NAV 2
radio receiver only. Additionally, it provides visual indications of unreliable signals or
equipment malfunctions via an intermittent "ToFrom" arrow and NAV flag. The "GS" flag will
be displayed whenever you are not operating on a LOC frequency or when the tuned LOC
signal is being received intermittently or not at all.
Control and Functions
Course pointer - Indicates
deviation from selected TACAN
VOR radial or LOC path.
Course index - Provides
reference point for course
deviation card.
Course deviation card Manually rotated card driven by
OBS control to indicate desired
VOR radial directly beneath
course index.
NAV warning flag - Red NAV
flag indicates VOR or LOC signal
is unreliably weak or malfunction
in receiver.
TO/FROM flag - Indicates whether flying selected radial would direct helicopter toward (TO)
or from (FR) VOR station.
Reciprocal course index - Indicates radial 180° from selected radial.
Omnibearing selector (OBS) - Drives course deviation card for course selection.
(NATOPS 18.17)
……. Deviation information on the pilot's HSI and the copilot's CDI is also selected via the
NAV 1 - NAV 2 PBS. When the pilot and copilot select the same NAV source, the copilot's
CDI will become a repeater of the HSI, and a corresponding ,CRS INOP light will appear on
the copilot's GPS panel. TACAN azimuth will not be displayed when both pilot and copilot
have selected NAV 2 (GPS) information. VOR and ADF azimuth will not be affected.
…. The GPS CRS deviation as described above. The GPS CRS OBS-LEG pushbutton switch
toggles KLN 900 deviation between OBS and LEG modes. In the OBS mode deviation is
given in miles from the selected bearing. In the LEG mode deviation is given in miles from a
line connecting two selected waypoints. CDI scale factors vary; see the Pilot's Guide for
details. Depressing the OBS-LEG switch on either the pilot's or copilot's side, or the OBS
button on the KLN 900 will toggle the function.
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Use of horizontal situation indicator (HSI)
HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR (FIGURE 18-15) (NATOPS 18.18)
The HSI located on the right side of the instrument panel displays a heading card, a course
datum, heading selector, glideslope pointer, and course deviation bar. Two flag circuits are
incorporated in the instrument: the HDG flag appears if system power of gyro spin motor
operation is inadequate; a NAV flag appears if receiver is inadequate.
Control and Functions
Heading select marker - Provides reference for selected heading to be flown. The
marker moves with compass card except while being mechanically positioned by heading
select knob.
Dual glideslope pointer- Indicates helicopter position above or below glideslope signal
received from NAV radio. Pointers retract when signal is unreliable.
Symbolic aircraft- Shows helicopter relationship to the compass and the selected VOR
or LOC course.
VOR and localizer deviation bar- Indicates position of aircraft in relation to VOR or
localizer signal.
Course select knob Used to position course
pointer to the desired VOR
radial (to or from) for the
NAV receiver.
Compass card - Displays
helicopter magnetic
heading against lubber
line.
Heading select knob Used to position heading
marker.
TO-FROM indicator- Indicates flying the selected course on the course pointer, which
will direct the helicopter to or from the VOR station.
Course select pointer - Indicates the selected VOR radial from NAV radio. Course
pointer rotates with adjustment made on course select knob.
Compass warning flag - Flag indicates gyromagnetic compass is unreliable or not
operating. The magnetic heading under the lubber line will be unreliable.
Lubber line- Lubber line points out helicopter magnetic heading as indicated by compass
card.
NAV warning flag-Flag indicates unreliable signal from NAV 1 receiver.
Operation
1. Heading select knob - Set (as required).
2. Course select knob - Set (as required).
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To prepare for an ILS approach, tune the NAV receiver to desired frequency. When a
reliable signal is received, the NAV warning flag will disappear.
For a front or back course approach, rotate the course select knob to set the course
select pointer on the inbound localizer course. As with normal navigation, the deviation
bar represents the desired course. This representation works for both front and back
course approaches.
When flying an ILS course and a usable glideslope signal is received, the glideslope
deviation pointers will become visible on both sides of display. When in operation, the
deviation pointers represent the position of the glideslope path relative to the aircraft.
CAUTION
Localizer intercepts within 90° ±10° of the localizer course should be avoided because of
antenna signal degradation.
40 degrees lock-off
(Primary IFR WB pp. 1-15)
The aircraft’s TACAN receiver electronically measures the aircraft’s bearing from the station
in the proper 40o sector and then measures the aircraft’s position within that sector. If the
aircraft’s TACAN is malfunctioning or the signal reception is weak, the receiver may measure
the wrong 40o sector. This is known as “40o Lock Off.” The pilot must recognize this
phenomena when it occurs.
Cone of confusion
(INAV WB pp. 4-6,7)
Another place where TACAN differs from VOR is in the cone of confusion. You may recall
from previous texts and your flying experiences that VOR bearing information cannot be
received when directly over the station. The VOR cone is 40-50 degrees wide and the area
covered increases with altitude. TACAN stations also have a cone of confusion, but they are
much larger. The TACAN cone is up to 100 degrees wide. This works out to about 15 NM at
40,000 feet, and at an altitude of 5,000 feet, it would be just under two miles wide or about
one mile around the station.
Inside the TACAN cone, no bearing information can be received, but slant range information
is still reliable. Because of the size of the
TACAN cone, holding cannot be
accomplished over a TACAN station.
Instead, the holding pattern will be
oriented at a holding fix at some specified
range and bearing from the station.
Station passage is also affected by the
cone of confusion. Since the slant range
still functions, the minimum slant range or
minimum DME will designate station
passage. In other words, the range will
decrease as you approach the station
and will increase after you pass it. The
point at which the slant range begins to
increase again is station passage. Note
that the range will probably not decrease
to zero, unless you are flying extremely low.
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TACAN and VOR ground and airborne checkpoints
VOR RECEIVER CHECK POINTS (GP 5-45)
a. VOR test facility (VOT) (on selected civil and joint use airfields). VOT frequencies are
listed opposite "Navigational Aids" in the Airport/Facility Directory listings in the
Enroute Supplement.
b. Certified airborne check points (on established airways and/or in the vicinity of
selected VOR facilities).
c.
Certified check points on the airport surface (military and civil airfields).
(1) The VOR test facility (VOT) transmits a test signal which provides users of VOR
a convenient and accurate means to determine the operational status of their
receivers. The facility is designed to provide a means of checking the accuracy of
a VOR receiver while the aircraft is on the ground. The radiated test signal is
used by tuning the receiver to the designated frequency of the test facility. With
the Course Deviation Indicator centered, the course selector shall read Zero
degrees with the "To-From" indicator reading "From", or the course selector
should read 180 degrees with the "To-From" indicator reading "To". Should the
VOR receiver be of the automatic indicating type, the indication should be 180
degrees. (This is true for all airborne receivers except Mitchell, which will indicate
Zero degrees). Two means of identification are used with the VOR radiated test
signal. In some cases, a continuous series of dots are used, while in others, a
continuous 1020 Megahertz tone will identify the test signal. Information
concerning an individual test signal can be obtained from the local Flight Service
Station.
(2) Airborne and ground check points consist of certified radials that should be
received at specific points on the airport surface or over specific landmarks while
airborne in the immediate vicinity of the airport. Should an error in excess of _+4
degrees be indicated through use of the ground check or _+6 degrees using the
airborne check, IFR flight should not be attempted.
(3) TACAN receiver check point tolerances: Military bases normally designate a
specific ground point for checking the accuracy of aircraft TACAN receivers. The
tolerances for the ground check are similar to the VOR within _+ 4 degrees of the
designated radial and within one-half mile or 3 percent of the distance to the
facility, whichever is greater.
d. The list of VOR Airborne Check Points is published in the Area Planning Documents
(AP1, AP2, and AP3) under country listing.
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Demonstrate
A. Operation of TACAN navigation equipment
Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN) (FTI 901. A)
TACAN is used by the FAA for airways flight and instrument approaches and, by the Navy, in
its tactical control of aircraft. TACAN is a navigational aid that provides azimuth and slant
range distance (DME) information to the pilot enabling him to precisely fix his geographic
position at all times. Most airways in the United States are defined by combination VOR and
TACAN/VOR (VORTAC) stations. Also, almost all fleet aircraft, naval air stations, and ships
conducting helicopter operations are TACAN/VOR equipped.
VORTAC is considered a unified navigational aid, providing VOR azimuth, TACAN azimuth,
and TACAN distance (DME) at one site.
TACAN station passage is determined when the range indicator stops decreasing (minimum
DME).
When tuning a TACAN station:
1. Check the nav receiver panel. Tune in the proper TACAN channel selecting "X" or
"Y" as appropriate. Ensure the waypoint indicator (WPT) is not flashing by pressing
the "use" button. Ensure the "TACAN" mode is selected and not "TACAN RNAV" or
"TAC RNAV APP."
2. Select DME. Ensure that the DME selector switch corresponds to the radio used to
tune in the TACAN station. In the TH-57, you must be receiving DME in order to
receive TACAN azimuth. Since there is only one DME receiver in the TH-57, the pilot
can receive only one TACAN station at a time.
3. Select needle modes. Ensure the "ADF/VOR" selector buttons are in the "VOR"
position for TACAN and VOR operation.
4. Identify the station. TACAN stations are identified through the DME button on the
audio selector panel. The volume cannot be adjusted from the cockpit. Do not select
the associated NAV1 or NAV2 button, as these buttons select VOR audio only.
5. Select desired radial. Twist desired radial information into the CDI or HSI using the
omni-bearing selector knob (OBS). Digital radial information may be presented on the
DME indicator by selecting the "RAD" button on the nav receiver panel.
TACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION (TACAN) (AIM 1-1-5)
a. For reasons peculiar to military or naval operations (unusual siting conditions, the
pitching and rolling of a naval vessel, etc.) the civil VOR/DME system of air
navigation was considered unsuitable for military or naval use. A new navigational
system, TACAN, was therefore developed by the military and naval forces to more
readily lend itself to military and naval requirements. As a result, the FAA has been in
the process of integrating TACAN facilities with the civil VOR/DME program.
Although the theoretical, or technical principles of operation of TACAN equipment are
quite different from those of VOR/DME facilities, the end result, as far as the
navigating pilot is concerned, is the same. These integrated facilities are called
VORTACs.
b. TACAN ground equipment consists of either a fixed or mobile transmitting unit. The
airborne unit in conjunction with the ground unit reduces the transmitted signal to a visual
presentation of both azimuth and distance information. TACAN is a pulse system and
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operates in the UHF band of frequencies. Its use requires TACAN airborne equipment and
does not operate through conventional VOR equipment.
TACAN (INAV WB 3-7)
The Tactical Air Navigation System (TACAN) was developed in the early 1950's to meet the
military requirement for a portable aircraft navigation system for tactical use. It is considered
superior to the VOR system in that it provides distance information in addition to bearing. The
TACAN system enables the pilot to fix his position over the ground through the use of only
one navaid. TACAN operates in the UHF range of 962-1213 MHz. All TACAN stations are
assigned a channel that corresponds to a specific UHF frequency. There are 126 "X-band"
channels currently in use in the TACAN system and 126 "Y-band" channels available for
future use. To determine the TACAN channel of a navaid, consult appropriate FLIP
publications.
The TACAN system provides the pilot with relative bearing and slant-range distance
information with respect to selected TACAN or VORTAC ground station. The effective range
of TACAN is limited to line of sight. Actual operating range depends on the altitude of the
aircraft, weather, type of terrain, location and elevation of the ground transmitter and the
transmitter power. The ground equipment provides radial information with two special rotating
antennae which rotate around a central, stationary antenna at 15 cps (revolutions or cycles
per second). One main reference pulse and 8 auxiliary pulses occur on each cycle; therefore,
a reference pulse occurs each 40 degrees of rotation. The electronic equipment electronically
measures the time lapse between the main reference pulse and the maximum signal strength
of the rotating signal pattern. This determines the aircraft's bearing from the station within a
40-degree sector. Then, the time lapse between the auxiliary pulses and the maximum signal
strength of the combined inner and outer antennae rotation of 135 cps is measured to
determine the aircraft's position within the 40-degree sector.
Bearing information is accurate to plus or minus 1 ° of the designated radial and distance
information is accurate to within one-half mile or 3 % of the distance to the facility, whichever
is greater. This means that at about 100 miles from the transmitter, you can be sure of your
position within 2 miles either side of the indicated bearing and within 3 miles of the distance
reading.
Distance is determined with TACAN equipment by measuring the elapsed time between
transmission of interrogating pulses of the airborne set and reception of corresponding reply
pulses of the ground station. The aircraft transmitter starts the process by sending out the
interrogation pulses on an irregular, random basis. The ground station receiver then triggers
its transmitter, which sends out the distance reply pulses in the same pattern in which they
were received. This allows several aircraft to interrogate a station simultaneously. The aircraft
equipment essentially divides the number of microseconds it took for an interrogation pulse to
travel round trip by 12 to give distance from the station in nautical miles. Reliable signals may
be received at distances up to 199 NM at line-of-sight altitude. When equipped, further
processing of this information by the aircraft's equipment can produce ground speed and
time-to-station information for display to the pilot.
A limited number of VOR/DME facilities are included in the federal airway system. It should
be recognized that a VOR/DME facility is not quite the same as a VORTAC facility. A
VOR/DME facility is simply a VOR component collocated with a DME TRANSPONDER.
However, the identifier signals are synchronized on timeshare basis as with VORTAC
facilities.
When tuned to a VOR/DME, aircraft equipped with TACAN equipment will receive TACAN
distance information and the station identifier (about every 30 seconds).
When tuned to a VOR/DME, aircraft equipped with only VOR equipment (no DME unit) will
receive VOR bearing information and the station identifier.
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Continuous automatic transcribed weather broadcasts and other information may be
available on the VOR frequency of a VORTAC. Remember that voice is not available on
TACAN frequency. Therefore, after once identifying the TACAN signal of a VORTAC, pilots of
aircraft using both VOR and TACAN should monitor the VOR frequency and not the TACAN
frequency.
When flying on an IFR flight plan, the pilot can make his job safer and much easier through
the proper selection and setup of his navigation radios. He/she must ensure that the navaids
have been identified and that they are receiving accurate information. When flying on
airways, the pilot should tune the next station on his VOR/TACAN receiver at the halfway
point between the navaids that define the airway or at the designated changeover point as
found on the low altitude charts. Otherwise, he/she may stray off the airway. The following
chapters will deal with specific navigation systems.
NAV1 RECEIVER (KNS-81) (C) (NATOPS 18.15)
The KNS-81 consists of VOR/localizer receiver, RNAV computer, a glideslope receiver, and
control function for the KTU-709 tacan in a single unit. When combined with the CDI/or HSI
and DME indicator, the unit becomes a complete navigation system featuring three modes of
VOR or tacan operation (VOR, VOR RNV, VOR RNV APR, TAC, TAC RNV, TAC RNV APR)
and ILS. The unit also simultaneously displays waypoint parameters of frequency, radial, and
distance plus 1 of the 10 waypoints. It can display tacan or VOR radial and DME distance
information when the CHK button is depressed. It also can display bearing from the VORTAC
or waypoint in the DME indicators in place of ground speed when the RAD button is
depressed.
The KNS-81 provides VOR and localizer capabilities within the frequency range of 108.00 to
117.95 MHz with 50-kHz spacing (200 channels). The KNS-81 ILS glideslope receiver covers
40 channels within the frequency range of 329.15 to 335.00 MHz (150-kHz spacing).
Channeling for all operating modes is selected by the KNS-81 unit, which is located in the
pedestal.
Additionally, an automatic dimming circuit is incorporated to compensate for changes in
ambient light level and the control also features a nonvolatile memory that retains the last
selected frequencies when power is turned off. No aircraft power or batteries are required for
the nonvolatile memory.
Controls and Functions
Use button - Momentary pushbutton. Causes displayed waypoint to become active waypoint
and caret display to go to FRQ
mode.
RTN button - Momentary
pushbutton. When pushed
causes active waypoint in use to
be displayed and caret display to
go to FRQ mode.
RAD button - Two-position
pushbutton. The KNS-81 is
normally operated with the RAD
button not pressed. When in
depressed position, causes DME
to display radial information
instead of ground speed. Radial displayed will be from the station in VOR mode and from the
waypoint in RNAV modes (e.g., 280 F-).
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CHK button - Momentary pushbutton. Causes radial and distance waypoint parameters to
show radial and distance from VOR station instead and is read in place of preset radial and
DME on the KNS-81.
DATA button - Momentary pushbutton. Causes waypoint data display to change from FRQ to
RAD to DST and back to FRQ.
OFF/PULL/IDENT control - Power OFF/ON, pull out and select appropriate audio SELECT
button for audio identification. Rotate clockwise for increased audio level.
DATA input control - Dual concentric knobs, right side of panel. Center knob has in and out
positions.
Frequency data - Outer knob varies 1-MHz digit. A carry occurs from unit to 10 position.
Rollover occurs from 117 to 108. Center knob varies frequency in 50kHz steps (in or out
position).
Radial data - Outer knob varies 10° digit. A carry occurs from the 10 to 100 position. A
rollover to zero occurs at 360°. Center knob in position varies 1° digit. Center knob out
position varies 0.1 ° digit.
Distance data - Outer knob varies 10 nm digit. A carry occurs from the 10 to 100 place. A
rollover to zero occurs at 200 nm. Center knob in position varies 1 nm digit. Center knob out
position varies 0.1 nm digit.
Dual concentric knobs on left side of panel.
WPT/MODE select.
The outer knob changes the mode from VOR to VOR RNV to VOR RNV APR to TAC to TAC
RNV to TAC RNV APR and rolls over. Center knob selects waypoint from 0 to 9 and rolls
over.
18.15.2 Operation
1. OFF/PULL IDENT control - ON.
2. MODE select knob - Select Desired Mode.
3. DATA input control - Set (as desired).
4. WPT select knob - Set (as desired).
5. OFF/PULL IDENT control - Pull, check station identification (as desired), ensure
appropriate audio panel button is selected.
6. USE button - Press (as desired). Waypoint will become active.
7. RTN button - Press (as desired).
8. RAD button - Press (as desired).
9. CHK button - Press (as desired).
10. DATA button - Press (as desired).
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B. TACAN orientation
ORIENTATION (FTI 902)
Maneuver Description and Application [Reference NIFM Paragraph 20.1 (EQUIPMENT
AND OPERATION), Paragraph 21.2 (EQUIPMENT AND TRANSMISSION PRINCIPLES),
Paragraph 22.1 (AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDING)]
Orientation is the procedure for determining aircraft position with respect to the navaid.
Procedures
1. TUNE AND IDENTIFY THE STATION.
2. ENSURE THE VOR/ADF NEEDLE IS IN THE PROPER POSITION.
3. DETERMINE THE RADIAL/COURSE AND DME (TACAN/VOR) OR
BEARING/HEADING (ADF), AS APPLICABLE.
Amplification and Technique
1. With an operable directional gyro, the head of the ADF needle indicates the magnetic
heading to the station from the position of the aircraft. The position of the aircraft
relative to the station and magnetic bearing is always on the tail of the needle.
2. The TACAN/VOR indicates the radial on which the helicopter is located and the
course to the station will appear under the head of the needle.
3. With a TACAN or VORTAC, slant range from the station is shown by the DME.
Common Errors and Safety Notes
1. If the directional gyro is frozen or will not slave, the ADF needle will still indicate
relative bearing to the station.
2. Nearly all disturbances which affect the ADF bearing also affect the facility's
identification. Noisy identification usually occurs when the ADF needle is erratic.
Voice, music, or erroneous identification may be heard when a steady false bearing
is being displayed. Since ADF receivers do not have a "FLAG" to warn the pilot when
erroneous bearing information is being displayed, the pilot must continuously monitor
the NDB's identification to alert him when a signal becomes unreliable.
3. A TACAN/VOR station should not be used for navigation unless it can be identified
even though it appears that a good "lock-on" is obtained.
4. TACAN/VOR signals are subject to line of sight restrictions and unlock may occur
when the aircraft fuselage or other obstructions interfere with the transmitted signal.
5. TACAN is susceptible to azimuth errors of 40 degrees or multiples thereof (i.e. 80
degrees, 120 degrees, etc.). This may be caused by a weak airborne receiver and
may be rectified by merely re-channelizing the unit.
6. The only positive method of identifying a VOR is by its three letter Morse Code
identification or by the recorded automatic voice identification which is always
indicated by use of the word "VOR" following the station's name.
7. Utilize available backup navaids to prevent inflight use of erroneous navigation
signals.
8. Apply all that has been presented in this FTI (i.e., navaids, magnetic compass turns,
etc.) in forming a complete understanding of the nuances associated with completing
this maneuver.
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C. TACAN tracking
TRACKING (FTI 904)
Maneuver Description and Application [Reference NIFM Paragraph 20.3.7 (Estimating
Drift Correction)]
Tracking is the procedure for determining a magnetic heading which will correct for wind drift
and enable the aircraft to maintain a straight track over the ground which coincides with a
desired bearing/radial to or from a station, and is the most direct route from one point to
another.
Procedures
1. TURN TO THE INBOUND OR OUTBOUND BEARING/RADIAL.
2. APPLY A WIND CORRECTION.
3. CORRECT DRIFT.
4. ESTABLISH TRACK.
5. CROSS CHECK FOR DRIFT.
6. WITH TACAN/VOR, SET CDI/HSI TO TRACKING COURSE.
Amplification and Technique
1. Establish the aircraft on the desired bearing/radial while maintaining the
corresponding heading. Ensure proper sensing.
2. When tracking inbound, the head of the needle provides magnetic course
information. As the aircraft drifts off course, the head of the needle will drift off in the
opposite direction (HEAD FALLS). Utilize the tail of the needle to identify your
position relative to the station. Inbound, the tail of the needle will identify the
bearing/radial which is to be maintained. It is the reciprocal of the inbound magnetic
course. Having drifted off course, determine to which side of the bearing/radial the
aircraft has drifted and turn in the proper direction toward the desired bearing/radial
to correct the drift error (TAIL RISES).
3. When tracking outbound, utilize the tail of the needle to identify the bearing/radial and
course from the station. As the aircraft drifts off course, the tail will drift in the same
direction. Turn in the proper direction toward the desired bearing/radial to correct the
drift error.
4. Correct towards the new bearing/radial an appropriate amount. The amount of
correction required depends on the length of time required to drift off course and the
distance.from the station once established on the desired bearing/radial, turn once
again into the wind and establish a crab angle relative to the desired course that will
correct for the crosswind component. Cross check the RMI frequently to determine if
drift reoccurs. If so, establish a new correction and continue to do so until the correct
crab angle is found which accurately compensates for the existing crosswind.
5. When TACAN/VOR tracking utilizing the CDI/HSI, the course deviation bar will drift
off center in the same direction as the TACAN/VOR needle for off-course indications.
Once drift is detected, select a new heading in the same direction that the CDI/HSI
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has moved. The amount of heading correction will depend on the length of time
required to drift off course and distance from the station.
6. Several attempts may be required before the correct amount of drift correction is
determined (bracketing).
Common Errors and Safety Notes
1. Do not over-correct when close to the station. Avoid large heading changes close to
the station.
2. Allow time for corrections to work.
3. Remember that the CDI/HSI is only a secondary reference. The TACAN/VOR needle
is the primary course indicator. If any disparity exists between the CDI/HSI and the
TACAN/VOR needle, utilize the needle for navigation.
4. Apply all that has been presented in this FTI (i.e., navaids, magnetic compass turns,
etc.) in forming a complete understanding of the nuances associated with completing
this maneuver.
D. TACAN radial intercepts
INTERCEPTS (FTI 905)
Maneuver Description and Application [Reference: NIFM Paragraph 20.3 (Procedures)]
Intercepts are performed in all phases of instrument navigation. Interception is defined as
selecting a heading which allows the interception of a desired bearing/radial at a
predetermined angle.
Interceptions fall into these categories: inbound, outbound, and over-the-station (a special
type of outbound interception).
Procedures
1. TUNE AND IDENTIFY THE STATION.
2. DETERMINE THE BEARING/RADIAL YOU ARE ON.
3. DETERMINE THE BEARING/RADIAL YOU WANT TO INTERCEPT.
4. MEASURE THE ANGULAR DIFFERENCE.
5. DETERMINE THE TYPE OF INTERCEPT PROCEDURE THAT WILL BE
REQUIRED AND TURN IN THE SHORTEST DIRECTION TO COMMENCE THE
INTERCEPT.
6. FOR TACAN/VOR INTERCEPTS, SET THE CDI/HSI TO THE NEW COURSE
WHICH WILL BE FLOWN AFTER TURNING TO INITIATE THE INTERCEPT.
Amplification and Technique
1. Inbound
a. Benchmark method (45 degrees or less of bearing/radial change):
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(1) Turn in the shortest direction toward the new bearing/radial to place the head
of the needle on the appropriate 45 degree benchmark in the upper half of
the RMI (this places the tail in a position to rise to the new bearing/radial).
Twist the new course in CDI/HSI.
(2) Note the aircraft heading.
(3) Hold this heading until nearing the new bearing/radial.
(4) Turn toward the head of the needle, and apply tracking techniques.
b. Wingtip method (greater than 45 degrees of bearing/radial change):
(1) Turn in the shortest direction toward the new bearing/radial to place the head
of the needle on the appropriate 90 degree benchmark. Twist the new course
in CDI/HSI.
(2) Throughout the intercept, either turn as necessary to keep the head of the
needle on the wingtip, or approximate the arc by placing the head of the
needle 5 to 10 degrees above the wingtip and maintain heading until the
needle falls 5 to 10 degrees below the wingtip. Repeat the procedure as
necessary.
(3) When nearing the new bearing/radial, turn toward the station and apply
tracking techniques.
Outbound
a. Benchmark method (45 degrees or less of bearing/radial change):
(1) Turn in the shortest direction toward the new bearing/radial to place the new
bearing/radial under the appropriate 45 degree benchmark in the upper half
of the RMI (this puts the tail of the needle in position to rise to the new
bearing/radial). Twist the new course in CDI/HSI.
(2) Note the aircraft heading.
(3) Hold this heading until nearing the desired bearing/radial.
(4) Turn back toward the bearing/radial and utilize tracking techniques away
from the station.
b. Wingtip method (greater than 45 but less than 120 degrees of bearing/radial
change):
(1) Turn in the shortest direction toward the new bearing/radial to place the head
of the needle on . the appropriate 90 degree benchmark. Twist the new
course in CDI/HSI.
(2) Throughout the intercept, either turn as necessary to keep the head of the
needle on the wingtip, or approximate the arc by placing the head of the
needle 5 to 10 degrees above the wingtip and maintaining heading until the
needle falls 5 to 10 degrees below the wingtip. Repeat the procedure as
necessary.
(3) When nearing the new bearing/radial, turn away from the station and apply
tracking techniques.
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Over-the-station method (greater than 120 degrees of bearing/radial change):
(1) Turn directly to the station and track inbound.
(2) After station passage is indicated, turn to parallel the new bearing/radial until
the needle stabilizes.
(3) Twist new course in CDI/HSI.
(4) Using a 15 to 30 degree cut, turn to intercept the new bearing/radial and
apply tracking techniques.
Common Errors and Safety Notes
1. Pay close attention to the speed with which the tail of the needle is rising in
determining the proper amount to "lead" your turn to avoid
undershooting/overshooting the desired heading.
2. Always ensure that the proper navigational aid is tuned and identified, and the proper
bearing/radial selected after having identified or tuned a new navaid.
3. With TACAN/VOR intercepts, the course selected in the CDI/HSI is the same as the
radial if tracking outbound and the course selected is the reciprocal of the radial if
tracking inbound. Remember that the CDI/HSI is only a secondary reference. The
TACAN/VOR needle is the primary course indicator. If any disparity exists between
the CDI/HSI and the TACAN/VOR needle, utilize the needle for navigation.
4. Apply all that has been presented in this 'FTI (i.e., navaids, magnetic compass turns,
etc.) in forming a complete understanding of the nuances associated with completing
this maneuver.
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E. TACAN arcing
ARCING (FTI 909)
Maneuver Description and Application [Reference: NIFM Paragraph 21.2.3.4 (TACAN
Arcs)]
Arcing provides a means of maintaining a constant DME from a station and is an integral part
of TACAN/VORTAC approaches and departures.
Procedures
1. PROCEED TO THE RADIAL AND DME AT WHICH THE ARC BEGINS.
2. TURN IN THE PROPER DIRECTION PERPENDICULAR TO THE PRESENT
RADIAL.
3. SET THE HSI/CDI TO THE COURSE TO BE TRACKED ON AT THE END OF THE
ARC.
4. MAINTAIN THE DESIRED ARC, CORRECTING FOR WIND AS NECESSARY
UNTIL THE CDI/HSI BEGINS TO CENTER.
5. TURN INBOUND OR OUTBOUND ON THE NEW RADIAL.
Amplification and Technique
1. Lead turns onto the arc as appropriate. If tracking in or out on a radial to intercept the
arc lead the turn by approximately . 5 DM E.
2. There are two techniques used for maintaining the arc:
*
Make frequent but small heading changes to maintain a constant DME. The head
and tail of the needle should remain in a fairly constant position close to the
90/270 degree position on the RMI.
*
Maintain heading and allow the head of the needle to move 5-10 degrees below
the wingtip position. Then turn toward the station to place the TACAN/VOR
needle 5-10 degrees ahead of the wingtip and maintain this heading until the
needle is again behind the wingtip.
3. Utilize the following formula for determining the amount lead required to intercept a
radial from an arc: 30/DME = RADIAL LEAD.
Common Errors and Safety Notes
1. Failure to adequately account for wind on the arc.
2. Remember that the CDI/HSI is only a secondary reference. The TACAN/VOR needle
is the primary course indicator. If any disparity exists between the CDI/HSI and the
TACAN/VOR needle, utilize the needle for navigation.
3. Apply all that has been presented in this FTI (i.e., navaids, magnetic compass turns,
etc.) in forming a complete understanding of the nuances associated with completing
this maneuver.
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F. TACAN point-to-point navigation
POINT-TO-POINT NAVIGATION (FTI 907)
Maneuver Description and Application [Reference: NIFM Paragraph 21.2.3.8 (Technique
of Navigating Point to Point)]
Point-to-point navigation is a procedure used to fly from one TACAN/VORTAC fix to another
using a direct track.
Procedures
1. DETERMINE WHETHER THE PRESENT OR NEW FIX IS FARTHER FROM THE
TACAN/VORTAC STATION.
2. USING THE DIRECTIONAL GYRO AS A PLOTTING BOARD AND ITS CENTER AS
THE STATION, PLACE THE FARTHER FIX ON ITS RADIAL AT THE EDGE OF
THE CARD.
3. DETERMINE WHAT FRACTION THE DME OF THE CLOSER FIX IS OF THE
FARTHER FIX. PLACE THE CLOSER FIX ON ITS RADIAL ON THE DIRECTIONAL
GYRO AT A DISTANCE FROM THE CENTER OF THE CARD EQUAL TO THAT
FRACTION.
4. CONNECT THE TWO PLOTTED FIXES WITH AN IMAGINARY LINE OR A
STRAIGHT EDGE. MOVE THE LINE TO THE CENTER OF THE DIRECTIONAL
GYRO SO THAT IT REMAINS PARALLEL TO THE ORIGINAL LINE.
5. READ THE NO-WIND HEADING WHERE THIS LINE CROSSES THE
DIRECTIONAL GYRO.
6. TURN TO THIS HEADING AND APPLY AN ESTIMATED WIND CORRECTION.
7. REPEAT THE PROCEDURE FREQUENTLY.
Amplification and Technique
1. Just as your starting position over the ground is the origin of the point-to-point, so it is
on the line plotted on the directional gyro. Always read in the direction from the
aircraft position to the desired fix.
2. Re-compute the point-to-point frequently to keep errors, and thus corrections
required, very small.
3. As you approach the destination fix note the relationship between the rate of change
in DME and radial. Adjust heading
to have them change at a rate that will put you right on the fix.
4. Use of the HSI/CDI, while not required for this maneuver, might assist in the intercept
of the new radial.
Common Errors and Safety Notes
1. Failure to adequately account for wind. A pilot can overcome the wind drift with
frequent updates of the point-to-point, particularly as he approaches the destination
fix.
2. Apply all that has been presented in this FTI (i.e., navaids, magnetic compass turns,
etc.) in forming a complete understanding of the nuances associated with completing
this maneuver.
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G. TACAN holding (station and non-station side)
HOLDING (FTI 908)
Maneuver Description and Application [Reference: NIFM Paragraph 20.3.12 (Holding),
Paragraph 21.2.3.9 (TACAN Holding), AIM Chapter 5 Section 3 (Holding)]
Holding is the airborne delay of an aircraft at some identifiable fix such as a station,
intersection, or in the case of TACAN/VORTAC holding, a radial/DME as specified by a
controlling agency, en route chart, or approach plate while awaiting further clearance.
Procedures
1. TIME. NOTE TIME ON INITIAL ARRIVAL OVER HOLDING FIX.
2. TURN. TO THE APPROPRIATE OUTBOUND HEADING.
3. TIME. BEGIN TIMING WHEN WINGS LEVEL OR ABEAM THE FIX, WHICHEVER
OCCURS LAST IF VOR/ADF HOLDING.
4. TRANSITION. SLOW TO 80 KIAS.
5. TWIST. SET INBOUND COURSE IN CDI/HSI IF TACAN/VOR HOLDING.
6. TALK. MAKE VOICE REPORT (PTA).
7. REACHING 1 MINUTE OR REQUIRED DME, TURN TO INTERCEPT HOLDING
RADIAL/BEARING (REMEMBER TAIL-RADIAL-TURN). TRACK INBOUND TO THE
FIX. (ENTRY ORBIT)
8. REACHING THE FIX, FLY THE PUBLISHED HEADING OUTBOUND. TURN
INBOUND, TIME IF REQUIRED (VOR/ADF), AND NOTE AND APPLY CRAB
CORRECTION AND TRACK. (NO WIND ORBIT).
9. REACHING THE FIX, NOTE THE TIME NEEDED TO FLY INBOUND (VOR/ADF).
USE THIS INFORMATION TO ADJUST OUTBOUND TIMING TO ENSURE 1
MINUTE TIMING INBOUND. DOUBLE CRAB CORRECTION OUTBOUND. TURN
INBOUND AND CORRECT SUBSEQUENT ORBITS AS NECESSARY. (WIND
CORRECTED).
10. UPDATE EXPECTED FURTHER CLEARANCE (EFC) TIME AT LEAST 5 MINUTES
PRIOR TO EFC.
Amplification and Technique
1. Holding fixes often have published holding patterns; however, some do not. Unless
otherwise instructed by ATC, pilots are expected to hold as depicted or in a standard
pattern. The following general information will be given in a holding clearance:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Direction of holding pattern from the holding fix.
Name of the holding fix.
Bearing on which the aircraft is to hold.
Left turns if a non-standard pattern is to be used.
Expected further clearance time.
Holding altitude. (Not required if remaining at present altitude).
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2. If the controlling agency issues a clearance limit (for example, "4E050, your
clearance limit is now Bugle intersection, expect further clearance at -50.°) and no
further instructions are received, hold in a standard pattern on the inbound course on
which the aircraft approaches the fix or as depicted. Maintain the last assigned
altitude unless otherwise directed.
3. For intersection holding, the inbound holding radial will be dialed in the pilot's primary
navaid and the corresponding HSI/CDI. The secondary navaid will be tuned on the
other radio and its corresponding needle will be used to identify the intersection.
4. The aircraft is abeam when it is positioned exactly 90 degrees relative to the holding
bearing/radial, not necessarily when the needle passes through the 3:00/9:00 (or
90/270) position on the RMI. Remember, your position is always on the tail of the
needle.
5. Make all turns standard rate (3 degrees per second).
6. Wind compensation will be made on inbound and outbound headings, not when
turning. Once the inbound wind crab correction is determined, this number will be
doubled for the outbound course.
Common Errors and Safety Notes
1. Upon receipt of holding instructions, ensure that the expected further clearance time
has been received.
2. If an approach is to be made, ensure that all preparations have been made prior to
commencing that approach (WNTB, WAR, etc.). As soon as you are talking to the
controlling agency that can provide WAR information, request it; Don't wait!
3. Apply all that has been presented in this FTI (i.e., navaids, magnetic compass turns,
etc.) in forming a complete understanding of the nuances associated with completing
this maneuver.
3. See the AIM for holding pattern entries.
4. The TO-FROM flag is not used to indicate the abeam position.
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HOLDING (INAV WB pp. 9-2)
It is sometimes necessary for Air Traffic Control (ATC) to delay the progress of an instrument
flight. ATC will issue holding instructions to aircraft en route when other preceding traffic
blocks all feasible routes beyond a certain fix. If unable to separate traffic vertically (by
requiring aircraft to maintain different altitudes) or laterally (by regulating aircraft to fly
different routes), ATC will employ longitudinal separation to resolve a conflict in air traffic by
issuing a holding clearance to aircraft in the en route phase of flight.
Holding may be necessary at a terminal area because of the higher density of instrument air
traffic where several aircraft are awaiting their turn to make an approach. When issuing
approach clearances, ATC will issue approach clearances on a "first-come-first-served"
basis. Therefore, ATC will issue holding instructions to delay certain aircraft in the terminal
phase of flight before issuing an approach clearance.
A holding clearance given to en route aircraft will include an Expect Further Clearance Time.
In the event of two-way radio failure, it serves as an "insurance policy"; i.e., the pilot should
adjust his pattern to depart the holding point at the Expect Further Clearance Time and
continue to any initial approach fix serving his destination.
A holding clearance given to an aircraft in the terminal (destination) phase of flight will include
an Expect Further Clearance Time, also. As before, it serves as an "insurance policy," and
should a two-way radio failure occur, the pilot will depart the holding fix at the Expect Further
Clearance Time.
In both cases, en route holding and terminal holding, a time delay from the original flight plan
is incurred. The pilot would be wise to consider such factors as fuel remaining and weather
trends at his destination airport. If these factors are unfavorable and if the delay is excessive,
the pilot should consider requesting a clearance to his alternate airport or another suitable
airport.
You will recall that the clearance limit in an ATC clearance is the point to which an aircraft is
cleared. Under normal conditions, with good two-way radio communications, the pilot will not
proceed beyond the clearance limit until he/she receives further clearance from ATC. Traffic
controllers are required to issue further clearance or holding instructions to an aircraft five
minutes before the time the aircraft is expected to arrive at its current en route clearance limit.
However, occasions will arise, due to workload and other factors, when such may not be the
case. When further clearance or holding instructions have not been received by the time the
aircraft is three minutes from the clearance limit, the pilot is expected to reduce speed to
cross the clearance limit at or below the aircraft's maximum holding airspeed.
Holding instructions received from ATC may conflict with a depicted holding pattern. In this
case, a pilot will hold as instructed and not according to the depicted pattern.
An ATC clearance requiring an aircraft to hold at a fix where the pattern is not charted will
include the following information:
(1) Direction of holding from the fix in terms of the eight cardinal compass points (i.e., N,
NE, SE, etc.).
(2) Holding fix (the fix may be omitted if included at the beginning of the transmission as
the clearance limit).
(3) Radial, course, bearing, airway or route on which the aircraft is to hold.
(4) Leg length in miles if DME or RNAV is to be used (leg length will be specified in
minutes on pilot request or if the controller considers it necessary).
(5) Direction of turn if left turns are to be made, the pilot requests, or the controller
considers it necessary.
(6) Time to expect further clearance and any pertinent additional delay information.
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If the direction of turn is not specified in the holding clearance, the pilot will assume that the
pattern is standard. Turns, therefore, will be made to the right. The holding pattern is
nonstandard when the turns are made to the left. Making a left turn is the only element that
causes a holding pattern to be considered nonstandard.
Because of the location of facilities in congested areas, terrain, or proximity to other traffic
routes, nonstandard patterns may be used. When it is desired that a nonstandard pattern be
flown, the holding clearance would include the words "LEFT TURNS."
While holding, if instructions are received to depart at a specified time, the pilot should adjust
the flight path within the holding pattern to leave the holding fix at the exact time specified.
After departing the holding fix, normal speed should be resumed. Do not proceed to your
destination at your holding airspeed.
Holding is maneuvering an aircraft in a predetermined airspace. The flight path of an aircraft
is depicted as an elliptical or oval track; i.e., a "race track pattern" as shown by the dashed
line below.
An ATC clearance requiring an aircraft to hold at a fix where the pattern is not charted will
include the following information:
(1) Direction of holding from the fix in terms of the eight cardinal compass points (i.e., N,
NE, SE, etc.).
(2) Holding fix (the fix may be omitted if included at the beginning of the transmission as
the clearance limit).
(3) Radial, course, bearing, airway or route on which the aircraft is to hold.
(4) Leg length in miles if DME or RNAV is to be used (leg length will be specified in
minutes on pilot request or if the controller considers it necessary).
(5) Direction of turn if left turns are to be made, the pilot requests, or the controller
considers it necessary.
(6)
Time to expect further clearance and any pertinent additional delay information.
If the direction of turn is not specified in the holding clearance, the pilot will assume that
the pattern is standard. Turns, therefore, will be made to the right. The holding pattern is
nonstandard when the turns are made to the left. Making a left turn is the only element
that causes a holding pattern to be considered nonstandard.
Because of the location of facilities in congested areas, terrain, or proximity to other traffic
routes, nonstandard patterns may be used. When it is desired that a nonstandard pattern
be flown, the holding clearance would include the words "LEFT TURNS."
While holding, if instructions are received to depart at a specified time, the pilot should
adjust the flight path within the holding pattern to leave the holding fix at the exact time
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specified. After departing the holding fix, normal speed should be resumed. Do not
proceed to your destination at your holding airspeed.
Holding is maneuvering an aircraft in a predetermined airspace. The flight path of an
aircraft is depicted as an elliptical or oval track; i.e., a "race track pattern" as shown by
the dashed line below.
TACAN holding is the only exception to the standard 1-minute holding pattern in that the
holding clearance will specify the leg length in nautical miles.
TACAN stations have a large cone of confusion over the station. Therefore, it is not
feasible to hold aircraft directly over the TACAN station. Instead, because Distance
Measuring Equipment is part of the TACAN system, holding points will be specified as a
DME fix along a particular radial. As with intersections, the direction to hold with respect
to a DME fix has little relationship to the TACAN station.
Consider the following holding clearance:
"HOLD NORTHWEST OF THE 15 DME FIX, ON THE 135 RADIAL OF THE
PODUNK TACAN, 6-MILE LEGS, EXPECT FURTHER CLEARANCE AT 30. "
The third item given in a holding clearance is the holding course. This will be specified as
"radial," "magnetic bearing from," or airway number. In the sample holding clearance
already discussed, the holding course was specified as a radial. The term "radial" will be
used in the holding clearance when the holding fix is a VOR, VORTAC, TACAN, or
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intersection formed by any combination of these three navaids. If an airway is oriented
along the desired holding course, then the airway number may be substituted for the
radial in the holding clearance.
The phrases "MAGNETIC COURSE TO" and "MAGNETIC BEARING FROM" will be
used by ATC when the holding fix is a low-frequency radio beacon or an intersection
formed by low frequency radio beacons. It should be carefully noted that the concept of
"magnetic course to" is the opposite of the concept of a "radial," whereas the 225 radial is
oriented southwest of a VOR, the 225 magnetic course to a radio beacon is oriented
northeast of a radio beacon.
The concept of a "magnetic bearing from" a radio beacon is identical with the concept of
a "radial" from a VOR and needs no elaboration.
Additional items in a holding clearance are item 4, leg length in miles for TACAN holding,
and item 5, direction of turns for nonstandard, will only be stated in the clearance when
relevant to the holding pattern. Item 6, time to expect further clearance is normally the
last item of a holding clearance stated in minutes (only) past the hour, (i.e., at clock time
0930 EFC time will be stated "AT THREE ZERO"). Altitude assignment may be included
in a holding clearance only if the controller considers it necessary. En route holding will
be accomplished at the last assigned altitude. At the destination--if an aircraft is
established in a published holding pattern at an assigned altitude above the published
minimum holding altitude and subsequently cleared for the approach, the pilot may
descend to the published minimum holding altitude. The holding pattern would only be a
segment of the IAP if it is published on the instrument procedure chart and is used
instead of a procedure turn. For those holding patterns where there are no published
minimum holding altitudes, the pilot, upon receiving an approach clearance, must
maintain the last assigned altitude until leaving the holding pattern and established on the
inbound course. Thereafter, the published minimum altitude segment being flown will
apply. It is expected that the pilot will be assigned a holding altitude that will permit a
normal descent on the inbound course.
When flying en route with an assigned altitude of "VFR ON TOP," pilots must follow the
VFR semicircular rule; i.e., odd plus 500-foot altitudes when eastbound and even plus
500-foot altitudes when westbound. However, because of the frequent change of
direction in a holding pattern, this rule need not be followed. Therefore, a pilot may
maintain any thousand plus 500-foot altitude in the holding pattern when assigned "VFR
ON TOP."
Although ATC may clear aircraft "VFR ON TOP" for en route flight on the airways, ATC
will not hold more than one aircraft with this clearance at a given fix between the hours of
sunset and sunrise. When two or more aircraft are held at a given fix, each will be issued
an altitude assignment for holding such as "MAINTAIN 8000," or "MAINTAIN 5000," etc.
All turns during entry to the holding pattern will be made at a rate of 3° per second or a
30° angle of bank, whichever requires the least angle of bank.
The aircraft is considered to be in the holding pattern at the time of initial holding fix
passage. If holding over a VOR, initial holding fix passage would be noted by the first
complete reversal of the TOFROM indicator, since all VOR holding patterns are directly
over the VOR station. If holding over an ADF station, initial passage is indicated when the
needle moves through the wing tip position (090° position). If holding over a TACAN
radial/DME fix, initial passage is indicated by the tail of the No. 2 needle and the DME
readout.
After initial station passage, the pilot will turn either right or left to the outbound holding
course or turn to the teardrop heading as appropriate. The inbound holding course should
be set in the course indicator (i.e., ID-249) at initial holding fix passage. For holding entry,
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the RMI (or BDHI) can be divided into three sectors. The sizes of the sectors are
illustrated on the following page for standard and nonstandard patterns.
The direction to turn to enter holding is determined by the angular relationship between
the aircraft's heading at initial holding fix passage and the outbound holding course.
The direction to turn at initial holding fix passage depends on which sector the outbound
holding course (OHC) falls in. If the OHC falls in sector A, turn to the teardrop heading
and use the teardrop method of entry. The teardrop heading for standard patterns is
determined by subtracting 30° from the OHC. For nonstandard patterns, add 30° to the
OHC.
If the OHC fails in sector B, turn left for standard patterns and right for nonstandard
patterns. Remember, you are turning to the OHC.
If the OHC falls in sector C, turn in the direction of the holding pattern at initial holding fix
passage to the OHC.
After the pilot has turned outbound, he/she must time one minute for VOR and ADF
holding patterns. If the outbound leg length is specified in miles, the pilot must fly that
distance before turning inbound.
After the pilot has turned to the outbound heading after initial holding fix passage, he/she
will be either on the holding side or nonholding side of the holding course. The pilot must
now turn to intercept the holding course and fly inbound to the holding fix.
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In reference to figure 9-5, the pilot's RMI (or BDHI) and
No. 2 needle would have looked as depicted below
before turning inbound to the holding fix.
Notice that the pilot is on the 2408 and the 2508 is to his
left. Therefore, the pilot must turn left to intercept the
2508 or the holding course.
Let's go over two more examples of entry into a holding
pattern.
Example 1: While flying inbound to the Podunk VORTAC on the 290 radial, the pilot
receives the following clearance: "HOLD NORTHWEST OF THE 10 DME FIX ON THE
320 RADIAL OF THE PODUNK VORTAC, 2-MILE LEGS . . . "
A pictorial summary of the situation developed in Example 1 above would look like this:
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Example 2: While flying inbound to the XRAY radio beacon on the 340 magnetic course
to XRAY, the pilot receives the following clearance: "HOLD SOUTH OF XRAY RADIO
BEACON, ON THE 190 MAGNETIC BEARING FROM XRAY. . . "
A pictorial summary of the situation developed in Example 2 this:
CORRECTING FOR WIND
HEADWIND/TAILWIND CORRECTION
The first outbound leg, after initial holding fix passage, will not exceed one minute when
at an altitude of 14,000' or below. (When using TACAN, the outbound leg will not exceed
the specified leg length in nautical miles, regardless of wind.)
However, after completing the first circuit of the holding pattern, adjust the time outbound
as necessary to provide inbound times of not more than one minute for VOR or ADF
holding. For TACAN always fly the specified distance. Referring to the diagram above, if
a check of the inbound time turned out to be well over a minute, from what general
direction is the wind? (West)
Therefore, if this situation existed, how should the pilot adjust the outbound leg?
(Decrease timing outbound.)
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HOLDING (AIM 5-3-7)
a. Whenever an aircraft is cleared to a fix other than the destination airport and delay is
expected, it is the responsibility of the ATC controller to issue complete holding
instructions (unless the pattern is charted), an EFC time and best estimate of any
additional enroute/terminal delay.
NOTE: Only those holding patterns depicted on U.S. Government or commercially produced
(meeting FAA requirements) Low/High Altitude Enroute, and Area or STAR charts
should be used.
b. If the holding pattern is charted and the controller doesn't issue complete holding
instructions, the pilot is expected to hold as depicted on the appropriate chart. When
the pattern is charted, the controller may omit all holding instructions except the
charted holding direction and the statement; e.g., HOLD EAST AS PUBLISHED.
Controllers shall always issue complete holding instructions when pilots request
them.
c.
If no holding pattern is charted and holding instructions have not been issued, the
pilot should ask ATC for holding instructions prior to reaching the fix. This procedure
will eliminate the possibility of an aircraft entering a holding pattern other than that
desired by ATC. If unable to obtain holding instructions prior to reaching the fix (due
to frequency congestion, stuck microphone, etc.), then enter a standard pattern on
the course on which the aircraft approached the fix and request further clearance as
soon as possible. In this event, the altitude/flight level of the aircraft at the clearance
limit will be protected so that separation will be provided as required.
d. When an aircraft is 3 minutes or less from a clearance limit and a clearance beyond
the fix has not been received, the pilot is expected to start a speed reduction so that
the aircraft will cross the fix, initially, at or below the maximum holding airspeed.
e. When no delay is expected, the controller should issue a clearance beyond the fix as
soon as possible and, whenever possible, at least 5 minutes before the aircraft
reaches the clearance limit.
f.
Pilots should report to ATC the time and
altitude/flight level at which the aircraft
reaches the clearance limit and report
leaving the clearance limit.
NOTE: In the event of two-way communications
failure, pilots are required to comply with FAR
Part 91.185.
g. When holding at a VOR station, pilots
should begin the turn to the outbound leg
at the time of the first complete reversal of
the to/from indicator.
h. Patterns at the most generally used
holding fixes are depicted (charted) on
U.S. Government or commercially
produced (meeting FAA requirements)
Low or High Altitude Enroute, Area and
STAR Charts. Pilots are expected to hold
in the pattern depicted unless specifically
advised otherwise by ATC.
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NOTE: Holding patterns that protect for a maximum holding airspeed other than the standard
may be depicted by an icon, unless otherwise depicted. The icon is a standard holding
pattern symbol (racetrack) with the airspeed restriction shown in the center. In other
cases, the airspeed restriction will be depicted next to the standard holding pattern
symbol. (Reference: Holding, paragraph 5-3-7 j.2.)
i.An ATC clearance requiring an aircraft to hold at a fix where the pattern is not charted will
include the following information: (See Figure 5-3-2.)
1. Direction of holding from the fix in terms of the eight cardinal compass points (i.e., N,
NE, E, SE, etc.).
2. Holding fix (the fix may be omitted if included at the beginning of the transmission as
the clearance limit).
3. Radial, course, bearing, airway or route on which the aircraft is to hold.
4. Leg length in miles if DME or RNAV is to be used (leg length will be specified in
minutes on pilot request or if the controller considers it necessary).
5. Direction of turn if left turns are to be made, the pilot requests, or the controller
considers it necessary.
6. Time to expect further clearance and any pertinent additional delay information.
j.
Holding pattern airspace protection is based on the following procedures.
1.Descriptive Terms (a)Standard Pattern: Right turns (See Figure 5-3-3.)
(b)Nonstandard Pattern: Left turns
2. Airspeeds
(a) All aircraft may hold at the following altitudes and maximum holding airspeeds:
TABLE 5-3-1
Altitude (MSL)
MHA - 6,000’
6,001’- 14,000’
14,001’ and above
Airspeed (KIAS)
200
230
265
(b) The following are exceptions to the maximum holding airspeeds:
(1) Holding patterns from 6,001’ to 14,000’ may be restricted to a maximum
airspeed of 210 KIAS. This nonstandard pattern will be depicted by an icon.
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(2) Holding patterns may be restricted to a maximum airspeed of 175 KIAS. This
nonstandard pattern will be depicted by an icon. Holding patterns restricted
to 175 KIAS will generally be found on instrument approach procedures
applicable to Category A and B aircraft only.
(3) Holding patterns at USAF airfields only 310 KIAS maximum, unless
otherwise depicted.
(4) Holding patterns at Navy fields only 230 KIAS maximum, unless otherwise
depicted.
(c) The following phraseology may be used by an ATCS to advise a pilot of the
maximum holding airspeed for a holding pattern airspace area.
PHRASEOLOGY: (AIRCRAFT IDENTIFICATION) (HOLDING INSTRUCTIONS, WHEN
NEEDED) MAXIMUM HOLDING AIRSPEED IS (SPEED IN KNOTS).
3. Entry Procedures (See Figure 5-3-4)
(a) Parallel Procedure When approaching the holding
fix from anywhere in sector (a), the parallel entry
procedure would be to turn to a heading to parallel
the holding course outbound on the non-holding
side for one minute, turn in the direction of the
holding pattern thru more than 180 degrees, and
return to the holding fix or intercept the holding
course inbound.
(b) Teardrop Procedure When approaching the
holding fix from anywhere in sector (b), the
teardrop entry procedure would be to fly to the fix,
turn outbound to a heading for a 30 degree
teardrop entry within the pattern (on the holding side) for a period of one minute,
then turn in the direction of the holding pattern to intercept the inbound holding
course.
(c) Direct Entry Procedure When approaching the holding fix from anywhere in
sector (c), the direct entry procedure would be to fly directly to the fix and turn to
follow the holding pattern.
(d) While other entry procedures may enable the aircraft to enter the holding pattern
and remain within protected airspace, the parallel, teardrop and direct entries are
the procedures for entry and holding recommended by the FAA.
4. Timing
(a) Inbound Leg
(1) At or below 14,000 ft. MSL - 1 minute.
(2) Above 14,000 ft. MSL - 1 1/2 minutes.
NOTE: The initial outbound leg should be flown for 1 minute or 1 and 1/2 min.
(appropriate to altitude). Timing for subsequent outbound legs should be adjusted as
necessary to achieve proper inbound leg time. Pilots may use any navigational
means available; i.e., DME, RNAV, etc., to insure the appropriate inbound leg times.
(b) Outbound leg timing begins over/abeam the fix, whichever occurs later. If the
abeam position cannot be determined, start timing when turn to outbound is
completed.
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5. Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) ¾ DME holding is subject to the same entry
and holding procedures except that distances (nautical miles) are used in lieu of time
values. The outbound course of a DME holding pattern is called the outbound leg of
the pattern. The length of the outbound leg will be specified by the controller. The
end of the outbound leg is determined by the odometer reading. (See Figure 5-3-5
and Figure 5-3-6.)
NOTE: When the inbound course is toward the NAVAID and the fix distance is 10
NM, and the leg length is 5NM, then the end of the outbound leg will be reached
when the DME reads 15 NM.
NOTE: When the inbound course is away from the NAVAID and the fix distance is 28
NM and the leg length is 8 NM, then the end of the outbound leg will be reached
when the DME reads 20 NM.
6. Pilot Action
(a) Start speed reduction when 3 minutes or less from the holding fix. Cross the
holding fix, initially, at or below the maximum holding airspeed.
(b) Make all turns during entry and while holding at:
(1) 3 degrees per second, or
(2) 30 degree bank angle, or
(3) 25 degree bank provided a flight director system is used.
NOTE: Use whichever requires the least bank angle.
(c) Compensate for wind effect primarily by drift correction on the inbound and
outbound legs. When outbound, triple the inbound drift correction to avoid major
turning adjustments; e.g., if correcting left by 8 degrees when inbound, correct
right by 24 degrees when outbound.
(d) Determine entry turn from aircraft heading upon arrival at the holding fix; ±5
degrees in heading is considered to be within allowable good operating limits for
determining entry.
(e) Advise ATC immediately what increased airspeed is necessary, if any, due to
turbulence, icing, etc., or if unable to accomplish any part of the holding
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procedures. When such higher speeds become no longer necessary, operate
according to the appropriate published holding speed and notify ATC.
7. Nonstandard Holding Pattern - Fix end and outbound end turns are made to the left.
Entry procedures to a nonstandard pattern are oriented in relation to the 70 degree
line on the holding side just as in the standard pattern.
k.
When holding at a fix and instructions are received specifying the time of departure from
the fix, the pilot should adjust the aircraft's flight path within the limits of the established
holding pattern in order to leave the fix at the exact time specified. After departing the
holding fix, normal speed is to be resumed with respect to other governing speed
requirements such as terminal area speed limits, specific ATC requests, etc. Where the
fix is associated with an instrument approach, and timed approaches are in effect, a
procedure turn shall not be executed unless the pilot advises ATC, since aircraft holding
are expected to proceed inbound on final approach directly from the holding pattern when
approach clearance is received.
l.
Radar Surveillance of Outer Fix Holding Pattern Airspace Areas ¾
1. Whenever aircraft are holding at an outer fix, ATC will usually provide radar
surveillance of the outer fix holding pattern airspace area, or any portion of it, if it is
shown on the controller's radar scope.
2. The controller will attempt to detect any holding aircraft that stray outside the holding
pattern airspace area and will assist any detected aircraft to return to the assigned
airspace area.
NOTE: Many factors could prevent ATC from providing this additional service, such as
workload, number of targets, precipitation, ground clutter, and radar system capability.
These circumstances may make it unfeasible to maintain radar identification of aircraft to
detect aircraft straying from the holding pattern. The provision of this service depends
entirely upon whether the controllers believe they are in a position to provide it and does
not relieve a pilot of their responsibility to adhere to an accepted ATC clearance.
3. If an aircraft is established in a published holding pattern at an assigned altitude
above the published minimum holding altitude and subsequently cleared for the
approach, the pilot may descend to the published minimum holding altitude. The
holding pattern would only be a segment of the IAP if it is published on the instrument
procedure chart and is used in lieu of a procedure turn.
m. For those holding patterns where there are no published minimum holding altitudes, the
pilot, upon receiving an approach clearance, must maintain the last assigned altitude until
leaving the holding pattern and established on the inbound course. Thereafter, the
published minimum altitude of the route segment being flown will apply. It is expected
that the pilot will be assigned a holding altitude that will permit a normal descent on the
inbound course.
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H. TACAN ground speed check
GROUND SPEED CHECK (FTI 1002)
Compute ground speed checks each leg to gain a sense of your actual progress across the
ground. This will aid in updating your fuel planning and arrival times.
Technique
1. Establish yourself on a track directly to or from a TACAN/VORTAC.
2. Start the clock and note the DME.
3. After six minutes check DME and multiply by 10. This will be your ground speed.
(Other timing lengths can be used, but six minutes makes computation simple and
allows for the ground speed check to be paired with an initial six minute fuel
consumption check).
I. TACAN approach
ADF/VOR/TACAN APPROACH (FTI 911)
Maneuver Description and Application [NIFM Paragraph 20.3.12.2 (Approaches),
Paragraph 21.2.4 (TACAN Approach Procedures), Paragraph 22.1.2.3 (Approach
Procedures), AIM Chapter 5 Section 4 (Arrival Procedures), AIM Chapter 5 Section 5
(Pilot/Controller Roles and Responsibilities)]
An instrument approach is a navigation procedure used to effect a safe letdown to an airport
while in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC).
Procedures
*
Before reaching the IAF:
1. OBTAIN WEATHER, ALTIMETER, AND DUTY RUNWAY (FAR) IF ATIS IS NOT
AVAILABLE.
2. TUNE AND IDENTIFY NAVAIDS.
3. COMPUTE TIMING, AS REQUIRED.
4. BRIEF THE APPROACH AND COPILOT DUTIES.
5. OBTAIN APPROACH CLEARANCE.
*
At the IAF:
1. TIME. NOTE TIME AT IAF.
2. TURN. TURN TO INTERCEPT APPROACH COURSE.
3. TIME. BEGIN TIMING OUTBOUND WHEN WINGS LEVEL OR ABEAM (VOR/ADF).
4. TRANSITION. DECELERATE TO FINAL APPROACH SPEED OF 90 KIAS,
DESCEND AS REQUIRED, COMPLETE LANDING CHECKLIST.
5. TWIST. SET DESIRED COURSE IN CDI/HSI (VOR/TACAN).
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6. TALK. MAKE VOICE REPORT, AS REQUIRED.
7. EXECUTE APPROACH PROCEDURE AS DEPICTED ON THE APPROACH
PLATE, MAKE VOICE REPORTS AS DIRECTED, PROCEED TO FAF.
*
At the FAF:
1. TIME. BEGIN TIMING, AS REQUIRED (VOR/ADF).
2. TURN. TURN AS REQUIRED TO INTERCEPT THE FINAL APPROACH COURSE.
3. TIME. AS REQUIRED (VOR/ADF).
4. TRANSITION. DESCEND TO MDA (ALLOWING FOR -INTERMEDIATE
RESTRICTIONS), REVIEW LANDING CHECKLIST COMPLETE.
5. TWIST. SET INBOUND COURSE IN CDI/HSI (VOR/TACAN).
6. TALK. MAKE VOICE REPORT, AS REQUIRED.
*
If missed approach is required:
1. SET REQUIRED 70 KNOT CLIMB/100 KNOT CRUISE POWER.
2. SET REQUIRED 70 KNOT CLIMB/100 KNOT CRUISE NOSE ATTITUDE. (CHECK
IVSI/ALTIMETER FOR POSITIVE CLIMB INDICATIONS).
3. TURN SEARCHLIGHT OFF.
4. TURN TO COMPLY WITH MISSED APPROACH OR CLIMBOUT INSTRUCTIONS.
5. TALK. REPORT MISSED APPROACH/EXECUTING CLIMBOUT INSTRUCTIONS,
REASON FOR MISSED APPROACH, AND INTENTIONS AS SOON AS
PRACTICABLE.
Amplification and Technique
1. When the instructor tells you to prepare for your next approach or as you approach
the airport at which you intend to execute an approach follow the WNTB (We Need
To Brief) format as delineated in the procedures above.
2. Transitions from the en route structure to the initial approach fix (IAF) may occur in
the following ways:
*
Radar vectors to the final approach course. In this case, the pilot is vectored to
intercept the final approach course. This saves time and space and eliminates
the need for a procedure turn. When being radar vectored to the final approach
course maintain 100 KIAS until given the instructions, "cleared for the approach,"
then transition and complete the landing checks.
*
Clearance direct to the IAF. When receiving a clearance to the IAF, the pilot
should expect to execute the published approach including the procedure turn
unless instructed otherwise.
*
Departing the en route structure from a "NOPt" fix. In this situation, a pilot should
proceed direct to the final approach fix (FAF).
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3. Remember that since there is no DME associated with VOR and NDB approaches,
the pilot has no idea how close or far from the station the aircraft is located.
Therefore, when inbound on an approach, plan a comfortable rate of descent that will
enable you to reach the MDA before the MAP. The intent is to have sufficient time to
acquire the runway environment. Do not descend below the MDA!
4. It is permissible to listen to one turn of ATIS prior to contacting the terminal area
controller when the ATIS frequency is located on the same radio you intend to use for
primary communications.
Common Errors and Safety Notes
1. Cockpit organization is imperative in completing a successful approach (UTILIZE
BACKUP NAVAIDS). Take best advantage of the acronyms described above to help
organize your thoughts and actions.
2. A missed approach shall be executed when runway environment is not in sight at the
MAP, when directed by the controlling agency, or when the pilot determines he is
unable to continue to a safe landing.
3. In the event of a missed approach, it is imperative that a positive rate of climb be
established prior to turning, talking, or twisting. Make the appropriate voice report as
soon as practicable once established.
4. If an early missed approach is executed, the pilot shall fly the published approach as
specified to the MAP at or above the MDA before executing a turn.
5. Remember that the CDI/HSI is only a secondary reference. The TACAN/VOR needle
is the primary course indicator. If any disparity exists between the CDI/HSI and the
TACAN/VOR needle, utilize the needle for navigation.
6. Apply all that has been presented in this FTI (i.e., navaids, magnetic compass turns,
etc.) in forming a complete understanding of the nuances associated with completing
this maneuver.
J. TACAN missed approach
MISSED APPROACH (INAV WB pp. 2-33)
When the required visual reference is not established upon reaching the missed-approach
point, the pilot shall follow the prescribed missed-approach procedure (unless alternative
missed-approach instructions have been issued) and obtain further clearance.
a. The pilot may request clearance for another approach. Traffic permitting, an
approach clearance may be issued immediately or the flight may be required to hold
until clearance for an approach can be issued.
b. The pilot may request a holding clearance to await improvement in the weather if the
fuel remaining is sufficient and the weather trend indicates improvement.
c.
The pilot may, at any time, request clearance to an alternate airport.
Protected obstacle clearance areas for missed approach are predicated on the assumption
that the missed approach is initiated at the missed approach point not lower than the MDA.
Reasonable buffers are provided for normal maneuvers; however, no consideration is given
to an abnormally early turn. Therefore, when an early missed approach is executed, pilots
should, unless otherwise cleared, fly the instrument approach procedure as specified on the
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approach plate to the missed approach point at or above the MDA before executing a turning
maneuver.
If visual reference is lost while circling to land from an instrument approach, the missed
approach specified for that particular procedure must be followed (unless alternate missed
approach instructions have been issued). To become established on the prescribed missed
approach course, the pilot should make an initial climbing turn toward the landing runway and
continue the turn until he/she is established on the missed approach course. Inasmuch as the
circling maneuver may be accomplished in more than one direction, different patterns will be
required to become established on the prescribed missed approach course, depending on
the aircraft position at the time visual reference is lost. Adherence to the procedure will
assure that an aircraft will remain within the circling and missed approach obstruction
clearance areas.
Many instrument flights terminate at airports where weather conditions are well above the
instrument approach minimums. Consequently, it is often unnecessary, impractical, or even
inadvisable to make a complete standard instrument approach; it is more likely, under these
circumstances, that pilots will
a. cancel the IFR flight plan;
b. request clearance for a CONTACT APPROACH;
c. receive clearance for a VISUAL APPROACH.
After descending into VFR weather conditions, pilots often cancel their IFR flight plans
because it may be beneficial to do so (especially at airports where no Approach Control is
provided). After canceling, the pilot is no longer required to complete the full standard
instrument approach and may expedite landing by shortening the approach path. Also,
canceling the IFR flight plan allows the pilot more freedom to maneuver his/her aircraft for
sequencing with VFR traffic. Retaining the IFR flight plan when operating in VFR weather
conditions does not relieve the pilot of the responsibility of locating and avoiding other
aircraft. Canceling an IFR flight plan is the pilot's prerogative. Controllers cannot disapprove
such action. Recall that OPNAV 3710.7 requires that all military flights use a flight plan. This
means that you should file a VFR flight plan in the air, with the nearest flight service station,
whenever you cancel your IFR clearance.
Canceling an IFR flight plan in the air does not relieve the pilot of the responsibility of closing
out his/her flight plan after landing with the nearest FSS.
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K. Instrument autorotation to touchdown
INSTRUMENT AUTOROTATION (NATOPS 809)
Maneuver Description and Application [Reference: TH-57 NATOPS Section VI, All
Weather Operation]
Instrument autorotations are practiced to develop the confidence and ability to execute a safe
autorotative descent in the event of an engine failure under actual instrument conditions.
Procedures
1. THE INSTRUCTOR WILL INITIATE THE MANEUVER BY ROLLING THE TWIST
GRIP TO FLIGHT IDLE AND TELLING THE STUDENT HE HAS A SIMULATED
ENGINE FAILURE.
2. ESTABLISH THE AIRCRAFT IN A STABLE AUTOROTATIVE DESCENT. ADJUST
NOSE ATTITUDE TO 60 KIAS AND COLLECTIVE TO MAINTAIN ROTOR RPM IN
THE GREEN (94-95% OPTIMUM).
3. TURN IN DIRECTION OF LAST KNOWN WIND.
4. CHECK NG AT FLIGHT IDLE RPM. REPORT NR AND NG TO YOUR
INSTRUCTOR.
5. ENSURE HARNESS IS LOCKED, A SIMULATED MAYDAY REPORT IS GIVEN,
AND TRANSPONDER SET TO 7700.
6. AT 250 FEET ABOVE THE ASSIGNED RECOVERY ALTITUDE, LEVEL YOUR
WINGS WHETHER INTO THE WIND OR NOT.
7. AT 150 FEET ABOVE THE RECOVERY ALTITUDE, CHECK COLLECTIVE FULL
DOWN AND ASSUME AN 8 TO 10-DEGREE NOSE UP ATTITUDE -(FLARE) ON
THE ATTITUDE INDICATOR (DEPENDING ON GROSS WEIGHT AND WIND
CONDITIONS). WHEN ESTABLISHED IN THE FLARE, SMOOTHLY ADVANCE
THE TWIST GRIP TO THE FULL OPEN POSITION AND ENSURE NF AND NR
ARE "MARRIED."
8. AT 75 FEET ABOVE RECOVERY ALTITUDE, COORDINATE UP COLLECTIVE
AND FORWARD CYCLIC TO COMPLETE THE RECOVERY AT THE RECOVERY
ALTITUDE WITH 40 KIAS. RECOVERY ALTITUDE WILL BE NO LOWER THAN
1000 FEET MSL.
9. RETURN TO 80 KIAS AT THE RECOVERY ALTITUDE.
NOTE: At any time prior to the recovery, the instructor has the option to pull the
instrument hood and have the student continue the maneuver as an engine failure at
altitude. The student should transition to a VFR scan and fly the aircraft to intercept
an autorotative profile to a selected landing site. Waveoff will be completed by the IP
no lower 500 feet AGL.
Amplification and Technique
1. Since time may be short, the format of the MAYDAY report should put the higher
priority items first. For example, "MAYDAY, MAYDAY, Navy 4E050, Crestview
VORTAC, 225 radial, 15 miles, (simulated) engine failure. (While you fly, ask the
instructor to lock, talk, and squawk.)
2. You might need to adjust flare to finish at the desired airspeed.
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Common Errors and Safety Notes
1. Failure to maintain 60 KIAS in the descent.2. A slow recovery sequence and/or insufficient collective application' causing the
aircraft to settle or descend below the assigned recovery altitude.
3. Failure to maintain heading with rudder pedals during twist grip and collective
application.
4. Avoid excessively slow airspeeds-and large control inputs during the recovery to
prevent mast bumping.
5. Use the attitude indicator and turn needle and ball to ensure a coordinated turn in
balanced flight of not more than 30 degrees angle of bank during the turn into the
wind. This -will prevent the nose from falling through or ballooning as the aircraft is
turned to the recovery course.
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