10
FROM SEVEN HILLS TO THREE
CONTINENTS
THE ART OF ANCIENT ROME
TEXT PAGES 246-299
REPUBLIC
Define or identify the following architectural elements and draw a simple
illustration of each.
Barrel vault The extension of a simple arch creating a semicylindrical ceiling over
parallel walls. It requires buttressing of the walls below the vaults to counteract
their downward and outward thrust.
Groin or cross vault Formed by the intersection at right angles of two barrel vaults of
equal size. Needs less buttressing and appears lighter than barrel vaults.
Pseudo-peripteral A series of engaged columns that run around the sides and back of
the cella to give the appearance of a peripteral colonnade.
1. Which cultures’ art most strongly influenced that of Rome?
Etruscan and Greek.
2. What two features of the Temple of “Fortuna Virilis” (FIG. 10-2) were drawn
from Etruscan temples?
a. The plan—the high podium is accessible only by the front via a wide flight of steps.
b. Columns are confined to the porch.
From Greek temples ?
a. The Ionic features—the fluted columns with bases and the Ionic frieze.
b. It is built of stone overlaid with stucco in imitation of Greek marble temples.
What element is distinctly Roman?
A series of engaged Ionic half-columns on the sides and back of the cella (pseudoperipteral).
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3. List two non-Greek features of the so-called Temple of Vesta (FIG. 10-3)?
1) Axial alignment of the narrow stairway being the only access to the high podium.
2) The cella walls were not constructed with masonry bocks but with concrete.
What is the style of the temple plan?
Circular.
4. What technical developments enabled the Romans to create an architecture of
space rather than of sheer mass?
The development of concrete – a cheap and very strong material. It can create huge
vaulted and domed rooms without internal supports. It allowed the Romans to
develop the groin vault and the hemispherical dome.
5. In what ways does the Roman tomb relief shown in FIG. 10-5 differ from
Greek examples like the one shown in FIG. 5-64? What emotional effect is
created by each, and what stylistic features contribute to creating those
effects?
The portraits are specific likenesses (portraits) rather than idealized types. The Roman
reliefs focus on the heads (which are in high relief), torso, and hands, rather than the
full figures, making them more intimate depictions as opposed to the formal Greek
tomb.
What do funerary reliefs tell us about the position of slaves in Roman as
opposed to Greek society?
Only freed slaves could have portraits made of themselves, because slaves were
property, not people, under the law. Freed slaveholders proudly ordered portrait
reliefs for their tombs to commemorate their new status as Roman citizens.
6. What was the major function of Roman Republican portrait sculpture?
The patricians were proud of their heritage and used portraits for public show and
private purposes. Portraits were one way the patricians celebrated their elevated
position in Roman society.
What stylistic features differentiate Roman Republican portraits from Greek
examples?
They were “veristic,” e.g., realistic, not idealized. The head alone was enough to
constitute a portrait, whereas the Greeks believed the head and body were inseparable
parts of an integral whole. Romans sometimes put veristic heads on bodies to which
they could not actually belong.
POMPEII AND THE CITIES OF VESUVIUS
Define or identify the following terms:
Amphitheater “Double theater,” a continuous elliptical cavea, resembling two Greek
theaters put together. Supported by concrete.
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Atrium The large central reception room in a Roman house.
Basilica
A civic building that housed the law court and other offices. Rectangular in plan with a
central nave, flanked by two aisles.
Cubiculum
Bedroom.
Forum
Public square, usually located in a city’s center at the intersection of the main east/west
and north/south avenues.
Impluvium
The basin that catches rainwater that falls through an opening in the atrium roof.
peristyle garden
A courtyard-type garden in a Roman house walled by colonnades on all sides; separate
from the atrium.
Triclinium
Dining room.
1. What catastrophic event has enabled modern scholars to learn so much about
life in a Roman town?
The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 BCE.
2. How did the structure and setting of the Capitolium differ from that of a Greek
temple?
It faces into the civic square at the heart of town, whereas a Greek temple would have
stood in isolation and could be approached from any angle. The Roman Capitolium
has a chief side that focuses attention.
3. Briefly describe the following painting styles found in Pompeii and its vicinity
and/or in Rome:
1st Style Stucco relief designs painted to resemble costly marble panels..
2nd Style Painters aimed to dissolve a room’s confining walls and replace them with
the illusion of an imaginary three-dimensional world, either confined to the surface
(early style) or extending beyond it (mature style).
3rd Style A return to surface decoration, with delicate linear patterns and fantasies
sketched onto mostly monochromatic backgrounds.
4th Style Illusionism returns with landscapes (this time framed or otherwise bordered)
and architectural elements, painted on a white ground.
4. List three pictorial devices used by Roman painters to suggest depth.
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a. One-point perspective
b. The illusion of a shallow ledge (painted flat on the wall) for figures to stand on.
c. Painted doors and gates that invite the viewer to step through them to the painted
world beyond.
5. Note the function of each room of a Roman villa:
Fauces
Foyer
Atrium
Courtyard reception room
Impluvium
The basin used to collect rain below the skylight in the atrium.
Cubiculum
Bedroom
Tablinium
Home office
Triclinium
Dining room
Peristyle
Garden
6. A house with the features listed above would have belonged to an upper class
family. How would a dwelling for the poor differ?
The poor lived in multistory apartment buildings of brick-faced concrete and glass
windows. There were shops on the ground floor and up to four floors of apartments
above. They had only narrow light wells and courtyards on the interior of the
building. Only deluxe apartments had private toilets; others used communal latrines.
7. Design a Roman house that uses at least five of the features listed above. Draw
the plan and label the rooms. Use a larger paper if you like.
Where do you think the kitchen and the sanitary facilities would be found?
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Probably at the back, near the garden and with ventilation.
What type of decorations would you use in the various rooms of the house
you are designing? Select from the styles illustrated above.
What features of the house would you like to have in a contemporary
dwelling?
EARLY EMPIRE
Define or identify the following:
colosseum
A massive concrete amphitheatre erected by Vespasian ca. 70-80 CE. It was
built on land Nero had confiscated for his private use. The Colosseum
could hold 50,000 spectators and showcased gladiator fights, naval battles,
and other spectacles.
Pont-du-Gard
An aqueduct bridge, comprised of three rows of arches, providing 100 gallons
of water a day to Nimes, France, from a source 30 miles away.
rusticated masonry
Roughened surfaces and beveled edges of stone blocks. Used to contrast with
precisely-carved blocks in the Greek style.
1. What stylistic sources inspired the Augustus of Primaporta (FIG. 10-25)
Classical Greek art, especially Polykleitos’ works.
What was the political message of the figure?
He is depicted as a general addressing his troops. The reliefs on his armor advertise a
diplomatic victory; the Cupid at his feet indicates divine descent.
2. What was the purpose of the Ara Pacis Augustae (FIG. 10-27 – 10-29), and how
did the iconography reflect that purpose?
To celebrate his most important achievement, the establishment of peace in the Roman
Empire (the Pax Romana), which was to last two centuries.
3. Name a building erected in France in the Augustan style:
Maison Carrée, Nimes, France.
4. What was the purpose of the Pont-du-Gard?
An aqueduct to carry water from a source 30 miles away.
What engineering principles was it based upon?
Gravity flow; the channels have a continuous gradual decline that runs from the water’s
source to the city.
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5. What is rustication and how was it used on the Porta Maggiore in Rome (FIG.
10-32)?
Rough masonry cutting used to contrast with Greek-style smooth surfaces, creating an
exciting and varied appearance.
6. Describe the hall from Nero’s Domus Aurea that is illustrated on (FIG. 10-33):
Shape?
Octagonal
Material?
Cement
Its major significance?
For the first time, architects seem to have thought of walls and vaults as not
merely limiting space but shaping it.
7. What name is commonly used for the Flavian Amphitheater?
The Colosseum.
How many people could it hold?
50,000.
What material was vital for its construction?
Concrete.
4. How did Flavian portraits differ from those done during the Republican
period?
Flavian-era artists brought back the veristic tradition, possibly at Vespasian’s
specific direction, with the intention of distancing himself from the excesses
of Nero.
5. The subjects depicted in the reliefs on the Arch of Titus were:
a. A historical scene of the Spoils of Jerusalem, Titus’ triumphant return from
the Jewish Wars.
b. An allegorical scene of Titus in his triumphal chariot being crowned by
Victory.
What was their political significance?
This was the first instance of divine and human figures intermingling in
Roman monumental sculpture. However, it was not erected until after the
emperor’s death, when he was officially considered a god.
THE HIGH EMPIRE
Define or identify the following:
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apotheosis Ascent to the heavens, elevated to the rank of the gods.
Apse A recess, usually semicircular, in the wall of a Roman basilica or at the
east end of a church.
Basilica A civic building that housed the law court and other offices. Rectangular in
plan with a central nave, flanked by two aisles.
Circus Maximus An oblong arena holding a racecourse where the world’s best
horse teams competed in chariot races, .
continuous narration In narrative art, where the same figure appears multiple
times in the same space at different stages of the story.
encaustic painting Painting where the pigment is mixed with wax and applied
to a surface while hot.
equestrian portrait A portrait of a figure on horseback.
Insula Multistory apartment buildings.
Oculus Circular opening in a dome.
1. Describe the type of plan that was used at Timgad.
A square divided into equal quarters by its two main streets which cross at
right angles and are bordered by colonnades. The quarters are each divided
into square blocks.
2. What major complex did Trajan build in Rome?
A forum twice the size of the forum Augustus had built a century earlier.
Who was its architect?
Apollodorus of Damascus.
What was portrayed on the Column of Trajan?
Trajan’s two successful military campaigns against the Dacians.
Describe the technique used to create the frieze:
The story is told in more than 150 episodes (carved in low relief) in a
winding, 625-foot long band. The band increases in width as it winds up the
column, to make it easier to read as it reaches the top and is farther from the
viewer.
3. Name an emperor, other than Augustus, who commissioned art that showed
strong Greek influence:
Hadrian.
4. What revolutionary architectural concept finds its fullest expression in the
Roman Pantheon (FIGS. 10-48 --10-50)?
For the first time, architecture was conceived in terms of units of space that
could be shaped by enclosures. The Pantheon is formed by the intersection of
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two circles, one horizontal (the orb of the earth) and one vertical (the dome of
the heavens).
5. What principle does Hadrian’s Villa (FIG. 10-51) share with the 2nd century
tomb from Petra (FIG. 10-52)?
Classical Greek architectural elements are used in a purely ornamental
fashion and with a studied disregard for classical rules that is distinctly
Roman.
6. What types of scenes were depicted on funerary plaques found at Ostia?
Scenes of daily life.
7. What change in burial practices caused sarcophagi to become so popular
during the 2nd century?
Romans began to favor burial over cremation, possibly reflecting an interest
in Christianity and other eastern religions that conceived of an afterlife for the
body.
What types of themes were used to decorate them?
Greek mythology was very popular, with portraits of the deceased serving as
the faces of the Greek heroes and heroines.
LATE EMPIRE
Define or identify the following terms:
caladarium
The hot-bath section of a Roman bathing establishment.
frigidarium
The cold-bath section of a Roman bathing establishment.
tempera
A technique of painting using pigment mixed with egg yolk, glue, or casein.
Also the medium of the paint.
tepidarium
The warm-bath section of a Roman bathing establishment.
1. Describe the features of the Late Antique style that are illustrated in the relief
shown in FIG. 10-66:
The frontality of the emperor and his sons and the “floating” figures of the
higher row of figures. These motifs were new to official art but had been
present in the lower-class art of freed slaves.
2. What functions, other than sanitary, did Roman baths fulfill?
They had landscaped gardens, lecture halls, libraries, exercise courts, and a
swimming pool.
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What type of vaults were used for the frigidarium of the Baths of Caracalla
(FIG. 10-68)? Groin vaults.
3. How do the portraits of Trajan Decius (FIG.10-69) and Trebonianus Gallus
(FIG. 10-70) reflect the art of the so-called “soldier emperors”?
Trajan Decius’ portrait shows worry and anxiety with deep lines in the
forehead and offset eyes, reflecting the out-of-control continuous civil war era
of the latter half of the second century. Trebonianus Gallus is nude as in the
Greek tradition, but his physique emphasizes bulk and power over a balance
of brain and body, giving it a feeling of brute force.
4. What is most distinctive about the structure of the Temple of Venus at
Baalbek?
It is the only known example of five-sided Corinthian columns on pentagonal
bases.
5. List three stylistic characteristics of the 4th century portraits of the tetrarchs
(FIG. 10-74).
a. Individual appearances and personalities of the figures are less important
than the idea of the tetrarchy itself. They are clad in identical clothing and
have very similar faces.
b. Large cubical heads on squat bodies.
c. The figures are grouped together and subsumed into a whole; the figure is
once again shown in iconic terms and is no longer freed from formal
rigidity as seen in Egyptian statues.
6. What reasons can be given for Constantine’s reuse of 2nd century sculpture on
his triumphal arch?
Declining creativity and skill in sculpture is one possibility. An alternative
explanation is that the statues were carefully selected to associate Constantine
with the “good emperors” of the second century, such as Hadrian and Marcus
Aurelius.
7. What type of architectural elements were used to construct Constantine’s
Basilica Nova (FIG. 10-79).
Brick-faced concrete walls, coffered barrel vaults, and groin vaults.
What features does it share with the Aula Palatina (FIGS. 10-80 and 10-81) that
Constantine built in Germany?
The austere brick exterior, a relatively simple interior, and large windows.
How does it differ ? It has a semicircular apse separated from the main hall by
a “triumphant arch,” and it also has boldly projecting buttresses.
8. What is the significance of the Christogram on Constantine’s coin portrait
(FIG. 10-82)? Inscribed on his helmet are the letters Chi Rho Iota (XPI), the
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initial letters of Christ’s name in Greek. Constantine is portrayed both as the
Roman emperor and as a soldier in the army of the Lord.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the influence of both Greek and Etruscan architecture on Roman
temple design.
2. Select an example of Roman painting representing each of the Pompeian styles
(1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th), and explain the characteristics of each. Note the devices used
to create the illusion of space.
3. Name three works commissioned by Augustus and describe their political
significance.
4. How were both realistic and Greek idealizing characteristics incorporated into
the Ara Pacis Augustae? In what respects did the reliefs from the Ara Pacis
Augustae (FIGS. 10-28 & 10-29) resemble the Parthenon frieze (FIG. 5-48) and
how do they differ?
5. How did the Greeks and the Romans differ in their conception of architectural
space? Include in your discussion the Greek Parthenon (FIGS. 5-42 to 5-48), the
Roman Pantheon (FIGS. 10-48 to10-50), the Baths of Caracalla (FIG. 10-68 ) and
the Basilica of Constantine (FIG. 10-79). How did the building techniques used
by each determine the types of spaces that could be constructed?
6. The emperors Trajan and Hadrian both made great architectural contributions
to Rome. What were they? Which do you think had the greatest effect on later
architecture? Why?
7. Discuss the effect of changing funerary practices on Roman art. Cite specific
examples.
8. Discuss the development of Roman portraiture by comparing and contrasting
the heads of a Republican Roman (FIG.10-7), Augustus (FIG.10-25), Vespasian
(FIG.10-35), Caracalla (FIG.10-65), Trajan Decius (FIG.10-69), and Constantine
(FIG.10-78). How do the various portraits or relate to the concept of “likeness”
and/or to political statements?
9. Analyze the stylistic differences between the reliefs from the Parthenon, (FIG.
5-48), the Column of Trajan (FIG.10-42), and the reliefs from the Arch of
Constantine (FIG. 10-77). In what ways do the style and subject matter of these
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reliefs reflect the social, religious, and political concerns of the society for which
each was made?
10. What do the differences between Diocletian’s Palace at Split (FIG.10-75), and
Hadrian’s Villa at Tivoli (FIG.10-51), say about changes in the political situation
between the 2nd and 4th centuries?
11. In what ways was the decline of Roman power reflected in art during the 3rd
and 4th centuries?
LOOKING CAREFULLY AND ANALYZING
Write at least two pages comparing the two Roman sarcophagi shown on FIGS.
10-71 and 10-72 , looking very carefully and describing what you see. First do a
formal analysis using the following terms: Form and Composition, Material and
Technique, Space, Mass and Volume.
Then do an iconographic analysis. How many people are shown in each
scene, and what are they doing? How are they related to each other? What is
each one doing? What is each one wearing? What do you think is the
meaning of the different treatment of the hair? What accessories can you find?
What do all these things tell us about the people that are depicted in the two
scenes, and what is the meaning of each?
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