Biology 465, Vertebrate Zoology,
Spring 2011, CRN 22593 and CRN 22594 (WP3)
Instructor:
Dr. Roger Anderson Office: BI 311,
Consulting Hours: M 1300-1400, W 1000-1045, H 1300-1400
Lecture:
MWF 1100-1150 in AW 403
Laboratory: Thursday 0800-1150 in BI 365, plus hours outside of class time including field trips
Textbook:
Vertebrate Life, 8th ed., by Pough, Janis & Heiser
Course Description:
Vertebrate Zoology is an integrated examination of the biology of vertebrate animals. Included are
investigations of vertebrate phylogenies and biogeography, and a focus on the adaptive features that define
particular taxa and that affect the spatiotemporal distributions of these taxa.
Course Objectives: To assist students with developing
(1) a comprehensive, albeit introductory knowledge of the vertebrate subphylum, focusing on the
adaptive features of each major taxon that has permitted its abundance and diversity,
(2) an ability to differentiate among vertebrate taxa, to identify their contrasting taxonomic features, and
to relate salient features of morphology (size, form, musculoskeletal structure), physiology (function
of organ systems), and behavior to how and where they survive and reproduce.
(3) knowledge of biogeographic distributions and evolutionary history of vertebrate taxa,
(4) an ability to locate and accurately observe vertebrates, and to estimate their numbers,
(5) familiarity with the major research journals on vertebrate ecology and evolution, and with current
research directions and methods of study of vertebrates reported on in these journals.
Week
Topic
Tentative Schedule of Lecture Topics
(text readings are suggested weekly)
1
Vertebrate diversity and biogeographic patterns
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Major differences in organismal adaptations: F, A, & R versus B & M
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The adaptive syndromes of food acquisition
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Life history adaptations, and body size patterns
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Reproduction ecology, energetics and competition for mates
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Seasonality: avoidance by migration or dormancy, versus coping with lean, hostile seasons.
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The adaptive syndromes to: deserts, high latitudes and high altitudes, and under water.
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Vertebrate Interactions
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Extinction-prone endemics versus overwhelming aliens
10
Research stories
1
Tentative Schedule of Laboratory Topics
Week Date
Laboratory Topic
1
3-31
Intro to Lab, Assign Student Topics,
Fish diversity, lab study of preserved specimens, video
2
4-7
More fish diversity; lab study of preserved and live specimens,
begin study of amphibian diversity
3
4-14
More amphibian diversity
compare feeding & locomotion in larval and adult amphibians.
Seek amphibians on Sehome Hill and just south of campus.
4
4-21
Bird diversity, lab study of preserved specimens, video and audio,
examine frog and bird embryos.
5
4-28
Meet at the Beaver Pond instead of lab:
Discover birds & amphibians of forest, streams, and ponds.
6
5-5
First Lab Practicum: fish, amphibians, and birds
Reptile diversity, lab study of preserved and live specimens, and video;
Compare locomotion and feeding behaviors in lizard, snake, and turtles
(note that the mammal specimens will be available to examine on or before 5-11)
7
5-12
Reptile & Mammal diversity, lab study of preserved specimens;
8
5-19
Focus on musculoskeletal features of vertebrates.
9
5-26
Review field observational skills, prepare for lab practicum.
10
6-2
2nd Lab Practicum, reptiles and mammals.
Audiovisual presentations of student projects, possible presentation by biologist.
Examination Dates and Assignment Due Dates
Date
April 4
Pts
April 6
Requirement
Taxon Sheet Choice Due
Field Research Topic Choice Due, and research team partners chosen
April 28
30
April 29
100
May 5
100
20
May 26
100
Taxon Sheet Due (individual assignment)
First Lecture Exam
First Lab Practicum: Fish, Amphibians, and Birds
Lab Notebooks submitted for Evaluation (individual)
Second Lab Practicum: Reptiles and Mammals
2
20
Lab Notebooks submitted for Evaluation (individual)
June 2
70
15
15
Written Reports and Data Sheets on Student Projects Due (team)
Student Audiovisual Presentations (team)
Field Notebooks on Field Trips and Student Projects Due (individual)
June 6
150
Second (Final, comprehensive) Lecture Exam, 1030-1230
620 Total Points (Note that the writing proficiency requirements will be provided elsewhere)
Grading Scale is about 10% per letter grade:
A = 91-100 = 546-600
B = 81-90 = 486-540
C = 71-80 = 426-480
D = 61-70 = 366-420
This course syllabus is tentative, it is not a contract. We will make changes, as necessary.
Some Recommended References on Local Vertebrates:
Amphibians of Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia, by C. Corkran & C. Thoms, 1996
Amphibians & Reptiles of the Pacific Northwest, by Nussbaum, Brodie, & Storm, 1983
Amphibians of Washington & Oregon, by Leonard, Brown, Jones, McAllister, & Storm, 1993
Reptiles of Washington & Oregon, by Brown, Bury, Darda, Diller, Peterson, & Storm, 1995
Birds of Whatcom County, by T. R. Wahl, 1995
Going Wild in Washington & Oregon, by S. Ewing, 1993
Marine Wildlife of Puget Sound, the San Juans, and the Strait of Georgia, by S. Yates, 1988
Coastal Fishes of the Pacific Northwest, by A. Lamb and P. Edgell, 1986
A Field Guide to Pacific Coast Fishes, North America. by W.N. Eschmeyer and E.S. Herald, 1983.
Inland Fishes of Washington, by R. Wydoski and R. Whitney, 1979
Peterson Field Guide to Freshwater Fishes, North America, by L.M. Page and B.M. Burr, 1991.
Salmon of the Pacific, by A. Lewis, 1994
Cascade-Olympic Natural History, by D. Mathews, 1999
Stokes Field Guide to Birds, Western Region, 1996
Birds of Washington State, by B.H. Bell, and G. Kennedy, 2006
Birds of North America, Western Region, by F.J. Alsop, 2001
The Sibley Guide to Birds, by D.A. Sibley, 2000
Western Birds, by R.T. Peterson, 1990
A Guide to the Nests, Eggs, and Nestlings of North American Birds, by P.A. Baicich & C. Harrison, 1997
Mammal Tracks & Signs, by Mark Elbroch, 2003
Mammals of North America, 4th Ed, by F.A. Reid, 2006,
National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Mammals, by J.O. Whitaker, 1996
3
Team Field Projects
Students work in teams of three or four.
Students should seek to answer basic questions about either of the following:
1) vertebrate form & function,
2) spatiotemporal distribution and abundance,
3) daily activity patterns.
Field observations should be entered as:
accurate, organized, information-rich field notes and onto data sheets.
Students should record a minimum of 18 hours of field or lab observations over 6 field days.
All field notes and data sheets should be turned in with the paper report of the observational study.
Photographs, audio cassettes, and video cassettes may be included.
The team research project will result in single team report, written in scientific paper format. The
standards expected for the scientific paper are high, so significant and documented effort by all team members
will be necessary.
Explication of scientific paper writing and live presentations are well-reviewed in several books:
A Short Guide to Writing About Biology,
written by Jan Pechenik
Writing Papers in the Biological Sciences,
written by Victoria McMillen
Writing in the Science,
written by Ann Penrose and Steven Katz.
A Student Handbook for Writing in Biology,
written by Karin Knisely
Note that each book has something unique to offer, so it may be prudent to examine at least two of them.
Copies are available to borrow overnight from Dr. Anderson.
Some example field studies:
Mammals:
Deer: evidence of activity and use of suburban environments.
Squirrel, chipmunk: patterns of spatiotemporal distribution and abundance
Cats: survey of city and suburban cat depradation of small birds and mammals
Roadkill counts and cleaning and re-articulating skeletons, skeletal radiographs
Reptiles:
Elgaria, Sceloporus, or Thamnophis: patterns of spatiotemporal distribution and abundance
Amphibians:
Egg mass distribution and abundance in local ponds
Spatiotemporal patterns of frogs along pond edges or of frog calls
Larval amphibian growth and development at Beaver Pond
Birds:
Shore bird or heron use of intertidal (sand, rock, or mudflats) zone
Heron rookery: patterns of parental care
Predatory bird foraging or foraging results (presenting food to young, or owl pellets)
Songbird: ecology of food acquisition and feeding of nestlings, fledging success
Songbirds: (e.g., red-winged blackbird), estimates of numbers of nesting pairs, male territory sizes, mate
competition and reproduction ecology.
Fish:
Observations of fish spawning in streams and lakes
Survey of commercial or recreational fish capture patterns
4
Some comments about teamwork (based upon the book by Robert Heller, titled Managing Teams)
An exemplary team is a dynamic working group, wherein team members discuss objectives, assess ideas,
make decisions, and work together to achieve goals.
Successful teams commonly have the following characteristics:
1) Strong and effective leadership, but with an understanding that teams cease to be teams if one person
dominates.
2) Common goals and challenging, realistic, explicit objectives are established and understood by all
team members, as are the approaches for achieving the objectives; progress toward objectives are to
be measured at strategic intervals.
3) Decisions are well-informed.
4) Decisions are made efficiently, without excess deliberation.
5) Team members communicate often, and can talk freely, without reticence, and with mutual respect;
flexible thinking and “brain-storming” are encouraged so that new ideas may lead to better solutions
to problems or even obviate problems or enhance goals and objectives
6) The requisite methods, techniques, and skills to accomplish the project collectively exist among team
members.
7) The team comprises the right balance of individuals that are prepared to work together for the
common good.
8) Cross-functionality permits expertise to be shared and roles to be interchanged when timing and
needs arise.
9) Adequate technical, administrative infrastructural support (permission and funds) exists for the team
to achieve its specific objectives and common goal.
If it is deemed necessary to have a designated “team leader,” the individual should be chosen based on
a) merit,
b) a commitment to the project, and has vision (long-term, larger goals)
c) a focus on results,
d) communication skill,
e) propensity to encourage individuals to compete with ideas, not with egos,
f) ability to be effective and proactive in preventing conflicts among team members and
resolving conflicts quickly should they arise.
The team leader is not controlling, but instead facilitates, implements, and inspires enthusiasm. The
team leader must have a tentative vision, values, and goals, and must invite input. The team leader is not
defensive, lets all members speak, pulls views together, and facilitates critical evaluation of alternative courses
of action.
An effective “team” has individuals that can fulfill at least one of seven roles, and collectively, all seven
important roles should be filled among team members. These roles are:
1) a leader (as described above),
2) an analyst of the effectiveness of methods and techniques,
3) an implementer that ensures adherence to schedules, with a can-do problem solving attitude toward
maintaining team momentum,
4) a coordinator to help integrate team member efforts, and to prioritize tasks and anticipate procedural
problems,
5) an ideas person who is creative, energetic, and eagerly receptive to other’s ideas,
6) an inspector to ensure that high standards are sought, problems are discovered, and that performances of the
team and its members are constructively critiqued,
7) an external contact (e.g. course instructor or TA in lab and field courses) that has an understanding of the
team’s purpose, and is diplomatic, supportive, and reassuring.
5
The Research Project Notebook
Detailed notes about the entire project should be assiduously recorded in a project notebook. Whereas a
published scientific paper is a distilled, simplified description of the methods successfully used, in contrast, a research
project notebook must be complete, accurate, and precise. Your research project notebook is the only way that you, or
any other scientist can know enough about your research to enable one to (1) perform the best statistical analyses of the
data, (2) carefully repeat most or all aspects of the research (outcomes of research are considered more reliable if the
work is repeated and the results are substantially the same), or (3) comprehensively review the published work. The
notebook can be used to verify methods used and to demonstrate how carefully you tested your measurement assumptions
(e.g., accuracy and precision of instrumentation). Your memory is certainly not adequate, particularly if details of the
research process become important to your understanding of the project outcome. If the veracity of your research is
called into question, or if the date of an important finding is in doubt, your notebook should be an important basis of
evidence. Ostensibly, the research project notebook is a day-by-day, hour-by-hour, step-by-step, thought-by-thought
accounting of precisely what each person involved in the research did, and when and where each person did it.
The standard laboratory (i.e, field and laboratory) research project notebook has sewn binding and chemical and
weather resistant paper and is written in indelible, smear-resistant ink (see Elements below). In many research
laboratories, the project notebooks have carbon copy pages (no entries can be erased) the researchers sign and date each
page of data. The project notebook should be available to any that want to review it. Journal editors, quality assurancequality control officers, health and safety officers, company or academic administrators, lawyers, awards committees,
dissertation and thesis committees, and course instructors, among others, occasionally must examine a researcher’s
research project notebook. Maintaining a detailed research project notebook is paramount.
Data recording should be rapidly, systematically performed, whether it is entered in a field notebook, or on
electronic or paper data sheets. Electronic data should be saved on the hard drive and on portable disks immediately.
Also, as soon as practical, the electronic data should be transcribed or printed on paper, and should include enough
documentation on each sheet (e.g., project name, experiment number or phase, date, time, personnel and equipment used)
along with the data to correctly place it into research project data notebooks. As sections are completed, the data pages
should be bound along the top or left edge, or each page is to be 3-hole punched—if the holes do not destroy entries—and
the pages are to be placed into a 3-ring binder notebook designated as a research project data notebook, with all the
necessary information on it, as is done with the lead project notebook.
When in the field, use data recording devices, pens, pencils, and paper that resist damage (to sunlight, rain, wind,
freezing, and rough handling), and have extra recording devices and batteries, and contingency plans should equipment
fail. A prudent procedure is making a photocopy replicate (facsimile) of the field notebook, by frequent photocopy
updating, and placing the cumulative copy in a safe place (common procedures of veteran field biologists).
The process of data recording must not diminish the observation ability of the researcher. One must decide ahead
of time when to collect data, and where, how, and what data to collect. One must be aware of one’s assumptions about
what data to collect, because other data may be more revealing and important. Thus, even though you may have made
data sheets that prompt you for the data to collect, you must be open to changing overall methods and specific techniques
that will lead to more definitive answers to the questions. Hence, arriving at the most effective research procedures is an
iterative process that involves practice runs. One must test the efficacy of the data collection techniques; especially
important is trying to reduce the intra-observer and inter-observer variability in observations and transcriptions.
After each bout or set of data entries, and especially after each day’s data collection session, be sure to examine
the data sheets for errors and omissions. Be sure writing is legible. Add detail and perspective to your comments before
you forget them. If possible, on a daily basis or at strategic intervals, make some preliminary graphs and statistical
analyses of your data. Typically data sheets and data collection procedures must be redesigned early in the project.
These endeavors not only will verify whether the procedures used and data collected are appropriate to the research
question you are investigating, but will determine the efficacy of your assumptions about the minimum necessary sample
sizes required.
6
Elements of a Research Project Notebook
1) The style or model of notebook should conform to or exceed the standards expected in that field and profession (science and
technology, in academia, business, industry, government) that is, whether the notebook should have a sewn binding or carbon
copies and what kind of chemical and weather resistant paper, and other standards should be met.
2) Alphanumeric designation and title of the research project should be placed on the cover and front page
3) All other pages should include the same alphanumeric designation on every page wherein entries are made.
4) Names, phone #, e-mail, and addresses of researchers on the project, with designation of the leader responsible for the notebook
contents should be placed in the front cover and front page, and the initials of the project leader should also be designated on each
page.
5) All pages should be numbered, in continuous sequence.
6) Abstracted description of the rationale and purpose of the research, with authors denoted.
7) Detailed descriptions, including schematics of setup and photos of the equipment and instrumentation used.
8) Verification of the accuracy of the equipment and instrumentation.
9) Detailed, step-by-step instructions for operation of all equipment and instrumentation.
10) Rationale for the exact kinds of individual specimens (e.g., species, age, gender, physiological condition) or samples used in the
research.
11) Detailed descriptions, measurements, or analyses of all individual specimens and samples that are to be used in the research.
12) Documentation of the source and maintenance of all specimens and samples prior to the experiment or observation bout.
13) Detailed instructions for conducting each experiment or observation bout.
14) Detailed instructions for how the data are collected and for what, exactly, constitutes data; a rationale for the sampling scheme and
the sample sizes required should also be included.
15) Comprehensive, easy-to-use data sheets, with room to add detailed supporting comments.
16) A preliminary list and description of the results expected.
17) A log, that is, a section in the front of the notebook designated for identifying date, time (begin and end), location of each
experiment or observation bout and the identification of each person’s precise role in each experiment or observation bout. The
log can function as a “Table of Contents”
18) The log must include the list of all data sheets used.
19) Documentation of all relevant conditions of the laboratory or field, both before and during the experiment or observation bout are
all necessary. So also are all mid-project evaluations of data, and thoughts on changes in research design (strategy), and research
procedures (tactics).
20) In some cases, the behavior of researchers during the observations, and the possible effect of observers on the observed (e.g., the
possiblility and the effect of detection of observer by the animal being observed) must be considered and commented upon.
21) Data should be
a) legible to any reader,
b) written in smear-resistant ink,
c) in the appropriate units,
d) entered in simple, quick-and-easy-to-enter coded form (codes must be well-defined),
e) on standardized data sheets, with a logical left-to-right and top-to-bottom sequence for data entry,
f) placed in the correct row and column, with all data cells entered or otherwise accounted for.
22) Each data entry should be verified and each data sheet should be numbered, labeled, and signed by the participants. Labeling
includes the alphanumeric designation of the research project, the exact experiment or observation bout, and the date, time, place,
and personnel.
23) Entry errors are to
a) have a single line through them, so that it is possible to read the incorrect entry,
b) the replacement entry, if there is one, must be made obvious; and
c) either initials and date or a reference symbol must indicate by whom and when the correction was made.
24) In the early stages of research design, perform a written review of the data collected and compare with results expected, so that
you can judge whether the data sheets help achieve the purpose of the research.
25) Drawings may be made in erasable pencil or erasable ink, but it is recommended to either trace with pen or photocopy and then
verify whether the facsimile is a true representation of the depiction. It may be necessary to refer to size, form, texture, color, and
light-dark contrast on the drawing as well.
26) Identification of who measured and recorded each type of information about samples and specimens, and lab or field conditions,
and if relevant, how long the process of measuring and recording takes for each type of information.
27) Description of the methods used for entering and editing data, and documentation of who entered and edited which data, when
they did the work, and what they named each set of data.
28) Description of the methods used for analyzing data.
29) Preliminary analyses, interpretations, and representations of the data, including tables and graphs that are readily attributed to a
well-defined set of data.
30) Preliminary conclusions of the research.
7
Sample Checklist for Field Observational Data
The checklist below comprises what students in a previous class in Vertebrate Zoology could have recorded when they were looking
for salamanders on Sehome Hill. They went searching with no instruments, only their wristwatches. They thought of clever ways to
measure objects and conditions even without instruments, then they verified those measures back at the lab. They compared the
general weather conditions with the local report from U.S. Weather Bureau.
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Date
Searchers
Scribe
Your location of search: regional, local, and specifically where on Sehome Hill (refer to landmarks)
Time search began and halted (for any one of several reasons), resumed, and ended
Compass direction of the sun, and height angle of sun when search began and ended
Sunlight continuous or not, and level of light (full sun, haze, light occlusion, heavy occlusion) over how much time
Other general weather conditions (e.g., dew, humidity, precipitation, wind, temperature)
What lighting and weather were like at ecologically relevant, recent times (e.g., 0.5, 1, 2, 4 hrs, 1, 2, 5 days)
Approximate angle of slope where search is located, and any notable variation with water drainage (e.g., ravines)
Relative or absolute measure of wet-moist-dry conditions
Relative (and recorded, if possible) temperatures among noteworthy locations
% cover of perennial plants, as visual projection downwards from vegetation (trees v. shrubs v. grasses and other herbaceous
plants, either annuals or perennials) in each location you designate as important
List the types of plants in each ecologically important category listed in the previous checked item (and which species within that
ecotype) that comprise the majority of % cover, abundance, and total volume or mass
In general area, count the number of “presumed species” of plants in each plant ecotype
State how the lighting conditions—such as full sunlight to varying levels and types of shade—vary with height above the ground,
and how they vary with above ground structures and vegetation
Describe litter characteristics: types and sizes of leaves and twigs, depth of litter, and degradation patterns in organic material with
depth, and characteristics of litter, soil, and plant root interfaces.
Determine soil types (relative amounts of loam, sand, clay), size of sand grains, pebbles and rocks, and moisture levels, and how
all of the foregoing vary with soil depth
Judge the moisture retaining ability of soil (perhaps considering soil type, plant root density, plant cover, amount of above ground
vegetation, and precipitation patterns)
State the rock sizes and types on the surface, and outcrop availability
Estimate or measure soil depth to bed rock and to water table
Measure the distribution and abundance of logs and their characteristics: ages, sizes, lengths, rot condition, bark, moss, resting,
embedded
Estimate the numbers and sizes of burrows, and whether perpendicular or parallel soil surface, compare under v. not under logs
tree bark characteristics
search time: where, time spent, litter search, crevice search, log-related search, moist v. dry sites
types and prevalence of damage to plants and soil surface
When a salamander is found try to document the following, and more: species, common name, size, age class, gender, color
patterns, skin texture, unique aspects of any individuals, microhabitat (and distances to different microhabitats nearby) and
microclimate and behavior of salamander where first seen.
8
Questions to Answer as One Writes a Paper in Scientific Paper Format
Title
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Does the title include the keywords and precise topic of investigation, i.e., is the title informative?
Is the title succinct, yet does it also refer to a topic of broader significance?
Does the title avoid misleading expectations?”
Abstract
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Why was the research performed?
What problem or question was addressed?
Were the background and rationale for the research provided in a sentence or two?
What hypotheses were tested and how were the hypotheses tested?
Were the methods stated in just a few sentences?
What major results were found, and did they relate directly to the hypotheses tested or questions addressed? Were findings stated
in no more than two or three sentences?
What were the major conclusions, and did they cogently relate to the questions and problems?
What implications can be drawn from this work?
Introduction
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Is the rationale for the work clearly stated?
Is the background information adequate enough to understand the rationale for the work?
Does the logic (general, past to specific, present) of the introduction lead the reader to conclude that the research about to be
reported on is the next important step?
That is to say, what are the broad questions in this area of biology?
What is known (include necessary information, avoid irrelevant information), and what questions should be explored now?
How, in general, do the authors propose to answer these questions (by observational, comparative, or experimental analyses; with
what biological system)?
Do the authors frame tightly logical hypotheses with exclusive predictions from which one can strongly infer causes for the effects
in question?
Methods
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Are the methods detailed enough so that others may repeat the work or be confident that they can adequately compare their work
with this study?
Do the authors provide adequate reasons—if they are not self-evident—for the specific research design and procedures and
instrumentation used?
Are enough details of the field or lab milieu available to place the work in a relevant context; that is, did the researchers provide
information about all important factors that may influence the outcome of the research?
Are there potential problems with the methods and are the limitations of the methods stated?
Are the independent factors (conditions or variables that are always closely observed, and sometimes manipulated and controlled)
and dependent factors (variables that respond to the independent factors) precisely stated in context of the hypotheses and
predictions?
How are these variables manipulated?
What kinds of data were collected, how were they collected, how many replicates of each situation or experiment were performed?
Are the sample types and sizes, and the sampling times and frequencies adequate?
Are the calculations made and statistical tests chosen adequate for the study?
Do the authors correctly use past tense, and in passive voice, avoiding the use of the word “I” unless their inclusion as unique
individuals is an important part of the methods?
Results
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Are the major observations and key trends in the data shown in logical order, consistent with methods?
Are results appropriately written in paragraph form, in the past tense, but with active verbs rather than as nominalizations
(expressing actions with nouns)?
Do the tables, figures, and their legends easily allow the reader to interpret the data (simply enough to be clear, but not so simply
as to be misleading)?
Are figures numbered consecutively in the order they are presented in the text?
Are the tables numbered consecutively in the order they are presented in the text?
Are raw data correctly not in the Results, and if it is necessary to include raw data, are they placed in appendices?
Are the figure legends and captions succinct and informative, not requiring excessive text to explain them?
9
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Are the types and numbers of individual subjects stated somewhere in these figures and tables, and are the appropriate summary
statistics about the samples available in the figure or associated text in the body of the text?
Are SI units used, or are the units, at least, metric?
Are calculations correct?
Are the statistical tests appropriate?
Are all figures necessary; and is each figure integrated well with the text so that information is not redundant? Conversely, should
any figures be added, and should text be modified accordingly?
Are the major findings stated, and are they written with reference to the data?
Are the interpretation of results assiduously avoided, and left for the Discussion?
Discussion
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Were the objectives of the research met? If not, why?
Does the Discussion bear directly on what was presented in the Introduction?
How did the predictions compare with what was observed?
If results are not like what was expected, then what new, testable hypothesis can be raised?
Are the results interpreted correctly?
Are post hoc explanations avoided?
Do the results corroborate findings of other researchers, or do they conflict with others?
Is the review of related papers adequate to place this work into context of the state of knowledge and understanding in this area of
biology?
Did the authors review the critical assumptions to the hypotheses tested?
Are any of these assumptions (such as the possible influences of uncontrolled independent factors) problematic?
What are the limitations of the methods used, and what new approaches and directions may be useful for future research in this
area?
What biological significance (either specific or broad) and implications for future research do the results have? Is excessive
speculation avoided?
Is excessive literature review avoided?
Should some of the literature review belong in the Introduction?
Literature Cited
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Are all references in the body of the manuscript listed in the Literature Cited?
Are the references cited in the proper context?
Are citations written in a consistent style, and is the precise style that requested by the course instructor or journal editors?
Acknowledgements
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Are all individuals and organizations that enabled any part of the study properly and proportionately acknowledged?
Appendix
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If an appendix is included, does it provide useful information or mathematical operations that are useful, but would be a
distraction if the information were placed in the Results?
Other Considerations of Scientific Paper Format
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Are paper size, margins, pagination, text alignment, spacing, paragraph indents, tabs, bulleting and numbering, title page,
headings, subheadings, page breaks, tables, figures, references, and numbering of tables, figures, and appendices all in correct
format as requested by course instructor or as indicated in Knisely’s book?
Are the typeface, font style and point size, symbols, abbreviations, species names and other special conventions of italicizing and
bold-facing as requested by the course instructor?
Are the paper bond, and the method the paper is bound and covered all in the manner requested by the course instructor?
Are the grammar, spelling, punctuation, word usage, and logic, clarity and length of phrases within sentences (sentences 1-2 lines
long), sentences within paragraphs (paragraphs 4-6 sentences long), and paragraphs within sections all at the standards expected
for accomplished students? (Clarity includes avoiding wordiness, redundancy, ambiguity, fragments, run-on sentences).
Are sentences logically organized and integrated within paragraphs and paragraphs integrated in each section?
Is jargon avoided?
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SUMMARY OF THE BIOLOGY OF THE TAXON: _____________________
1. Taxonomic Level and Name:
2. First Appearance:
3. Number of species:
4. Subgroups of taxon:
5. a. Geographic distribution:
b. Prevalent habitats:
6. a. Body sizes & forms of immatures & adults:
b. Characteristic morphological features:
7. a. What they "eat":
b. How they "capture food":
8. Movement is via:
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9. a. Modes of reproduction:
b. Reproduction parameters:
c. Dispersal of young:
10. a. Trophic level:
b. Major predators:
c. Age and size structure of population
d. Special ecological significance:
11.
a. Scientific importance:
b. Health and economic importance:
c. Aesthetic importance or other noteworthy comments:
12. Schematic drawing of prevalent forms, life cycles, or other useful depictions:
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Taxon Sheet Answer Guide
This is a general guide to tell you how to fill in answers to the Taxon sheet. Try to use brief, elegant phrases; make
outlines where appropriate.
1. For example, family Teiidae or genus Aspidoscelis (whiptail lizards of the Americas)
2. You should state which geological period and approximate date (Cretaceous, 75 mybp) of:
a) first fossil record, b) first abundance, c) suspected time of origin.
3. There may be two numbers, the # of named species, and the estimated total #.
4. Usually there are no more than a few well-known species per genus, or a few well-known genera per family. If there
are more than 10 that should be considered, consult with Dr. Anderson.
5a. Some options are worldwide, or a particular hemisphere, or continent (include latitudes), or mountain range (include
altitudes), or lake, etc...
5b. Try stating the type of biome or ecosystem, be somewhat specific. For example, if it is a lake or an ocean state where.
6a. State the range of body sizes within the group, and state the typical sizes of the group. The body form should be
succinctly described.
6b. The features you list should be the more obvious and important characters that one can notice readily or that are
described as features that are characteristic of that group as a separate and unique taxon.
7a. State the prevalent form and the diversity of heterotrophy of the group: obligate or facultative mutualists, parasites,
detritivores, herbivores, omnivores, carnivores, what materials or organisms (and trophic levels) do they tend to eat.
7b. Again, the prevalent and the diversity of methods. State if they are filter (suspension) feeders, capture prey by
tongue, teeth, claws, and so on. Are they ambush predators on prey that happen to move nearby or are they more mobile,
intensive searching predators on more sedentary prey? How do they detect prey?
8. Note that different life stages may move in different ways, and that you should identify both the prevalent method and
the less common methods. Some movements are aquatic, some are terrestrial, some are long distance, some are very
proximate, some are rapid, some are slow. They may be passive movers (eg., by currents in water), active movers. They
are propelled by what structures for what type of movements? State things briefly and logically.
9a. As usual, state prevalence and diversity. Are they parthenogenetic, gynogenetic, sequential hermaphroditism
(protandry, protogyny), gonochoristic, etc... Is fertilization internal or external? How long does the pair bond last? What
kind of mating systems do they exhibit?
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9b. Do they reproduce at a young age (e.g., within a year) or at a relatively greater age; how big are they at first
reproduction? Are they semelparous or iteroparous? If iteroparous what are the patterns of reproduction with age and
size, or with years of differing resource availability? Is there obvious senescence in reproductive ability?
9c. Do they produce a few large young or many small young? What is the offspring sex ratio? Are eggs laid singly or in
groups, in water, soil, logs, litter, nests, burrow, etc...? Do they exhibit parental care; if so, what form does it take? What
are the mortality rates of the young?
10a. State prevalence and diversity. Are they primary consumers, secondary consumers, tertiary consumers, etc...? If
there seems to be a difference in role depending upon ecosystem type then describe this.
10b. What trophic level and which principal taxa eat this taxon? Is this taxon of prime importance to the predators?
10c. What are the mortality rates of the adults, and what is the typical age structure pattern in the population (includes
natality, and mortality of young)? What is the generation time, and how long can individuals live?
10d. Are these pioneer organisms, or are they typical of long-term, climax communities? Are they commonly keystone
species, etc...?
11a. Are these organisms important for understanding the phylogenetic patterns, are they important for studies of
ecosystems, communities, populations, genetics, etc...?
11b. What aids or hindrances to human health and/or economics do members of this taxon provide?
NOTE: For each answer you must provide an alphanumeric designation for the reference, including page number of the
referenced information. You must provide a summary bibliography, with all references listed.
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One important objective of the Vertebrate Zoology laboratory experience is to develop your ability to observe, to depict, and
describe. Your ability to communicate via drawings, labels, and comments should improve as the course progresses.
Some of the entries about the organisms under study that you could make in your lab notebook:
 List of species available to observe
 Comments on the habitat and biome the subject species occupies
 Written descriptions and drawn depictions (either in profile, simple schematic, or realistic) of subject species
 More detailed drawings of important external structural features (should be set to a scale, with measurements)
 Important comments about functions of external structures
 Succinct comparisons of external structures and the functions of those structures among subject species
 Descriptions of salient behaviors
 Notes on audiovisual presentations
 Phylogenetic relationships among subject species
 Dichotomous keys that help differentiate the species or the larger taxa within which they are nested.
Suggestions for some of the basic information useful to obtain about the taxon you are observing, with the objective of
understanding the uniqueness of that taxon and making comparisons among taxa:
1. Common name or scientific name of the animal, and also list the larger taxa in which this taxon is nested.
2. Prevalent habitats it occupies, both macrohabitat and microhabitat:
3. Body forms of adults and larvae, if possible:
4. Characteristic morphological features (external structures), with reference to how some features are used for 5-7:
5. What they "eat" and how they "capture food":
6. Movement is via:
7. The sensory modalities are:
8. Special ecological significance:
9. Scientific or health and economic importance:
10. Schematic drawing of prevalent forms, life cycles, or other useful depictions
Below is a general guide that suggests how to fill in answers to the foregoing information categories.
Try to use brief, elegant phrases; use your Textbook and the Animal Biodiversity Reference to help develop your answers.
1.
For example, for a frog in the genus Hyla, you could say family Hylidae, order Anura, superorder Lissamphibia, subclass Tetrapoda, class
Euteleostomi (Osteichthyes), superclass Gnathostomata, subphylum Vertebrata (group Craniata), phylum Chordata, superphylum or sub-branch
Deuterostomia, branch Bilateria, subkingdom Eumetazoa, Kingdom Animalia. Realize that each specimen presented in lab is meant to be the
representative of at least one major taxon, and may be the principal representative of a set of two or three nested taxa.
2. Try stating the type of biome or ecosystem, be somewhat specific. For example, if it is a lake or an ocean state which zone it is likely to inhabit.
If you know the geographic distribution, then state so. Be sure, however, to present the evidence of external structures and their behavior in the
context of the medium they are in that would support your conclusions.
3. The body form should be succinctly described.
4. The features you list should be the more obvious and important characters that one can notice readily or that are described as features that are
characteristic of that group as a separate and unique taxon.
5. State both the prevalent and diversity of types of heterotrophy used by the taxon: obligate or facultative detritivores, herbivores, omnivores,
carnivores; state what materials or organisms they tend to eat. State (and in which life stage) they are filter (suspension) feeders, or what
structures they use for acquiring plant, algal, or fungal parts and what structures they use for capturing more evasive prey; that is, state how they
feed on what, and with what sorts of structures.
6. Note that different life stages may move in different ways, and that you should identify both the prevalent method and the less common methods
represented by the taxon. Some movements are long distance, some are very proximate, some are rapid, some are slow. They may have life
stages wherein they are passive movers (e.g., by currents in air or water), others are active movers. They are propelled by what structures for
what type of movements? State things briefly and logically.
7. What evidence from their external body structures and from their behavior do you have for the sorts of sensory systems they have?
8. State prevalence and diversity: are they primary consumers, secondary consumers, tertiary consumers, or some combination of these? Are these
more pioneer species, or are they more typical of long-term, climax communities? Are they commonly important to the animal community as
primary or secondary consumers, or are they keystone predatory species?
9. Are these animals useful for understanding phylogenetic patterns; are they important for ecological and genetic studies? What aids or hindrances
to human health and/or economics do members of this taxon provide?
10. Strategies for depicting these animals include
a) profile and diagrammatic drawings from top and side view,
b) schematic drawings (stick figures) of relative lengths, widths, and depths of body parts, and directions and planes in which various
body parts are oriented, and
c) more realistic and detailed drawings of specific body regions or structures, including details of shape and texture.
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