The table below outlines the constructions which will be covered:
Week
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Construction
Introduction
Syntax Consolidation: Nouns
Syntax Consolidation: Adjectives, Adverbs and Comparisons
Syntax Consolidation: Active Verbs
Syntax Consolidation: Passive Verbs
Direct Questions, Commands and Prohibitions
Infinitive and Indirect Statement I
Infinitive and Indirect Statement II
Participles
Ablative Uses and Ablative Absolute
Dative Uses and Predicative Dative
Genitive Uses
Relative Clauses
Syntax Consolidation: Subjunctive Verbs
(including Independent Subjunctives: Jussive, Deliberative, Optative)
Indirect Commands and Exhortations
Purpose Clauses
Result Clauses
Indirect Questions
Temporal Clauses (including cum)
Causal Clauses
Concessive Clauses
Comparative and Correlative Clauses
Indicative Conditionals
Subjunctive Conditionals
Gerunds and Gerundives
Gerundives of Obligation
dum and dummodo
Verbs and Phrases of Fearing
quomodo and quin
Oratio Obliqua
1
Language: Week 2
Syntax Consolidation: Nouns and Adjectives
Before embarking upon advanced linguistic work, it is absolutely essential to ensure
that your knowledge of basic Latin accidence is absolutely rock-solid.
This week, you should revise the cases and declensions of Latin nouns and adjectives.
You will need to be able to recognise the case and number of a Latin noun or
adjective from any of the five Declensions, and to understand the basic range of
meanings which each of the cases possess:
NOMINATIVE
Subject of the sentence; the person or thing who is doing the action described by the
verb:
The slave pruned the vines
ACCUSATIVE
Object of the sentence; the person or thing to whom the action described by the verb
is being done:
The slave pruned the vines
After a number of prepositions
GENITIVE
Possessive, meaning “of”: The food of the slave
After a number of prepositions
DATIVE
Indirect Object, meaning “to” or “for”:
The overseer gave food to the slaves; The slave carried the wine-jar for his master
After a number of prepositions
ABLATIVE
Basically, “by”, “with” or “from”:
The master beat the slaves with a stick
After a number of prepositions
You must thoroughly revise the noun and adjective tables which can be found at:
Palmer Latin Language pp. 142-143
or
Kennedy Revised Latin Primer pp. 17-18, 22-26, 30-31, 37-40
When you are confident that you are familiar with noun and adjective endings, follow
this link to the Nouns self-assessment exercise.
2
Language: Week 3
Syntax Consolidation: Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs
Before embarking upon advanced linguistic work, it is absolutely essential that you
ensure that your knowledge of basic Latin accidence is absolutely rock-solid.
This week, you should revise how Latin conveys the Comparative and Superlative
degrees of adjectives and adverbs.
BASIC ADJECTIVE / ADVERB That certainly is a fast, strong and ferocious
chicken!
COMPARATIVE I have never seen a faster, stronger, more ferocious chicken!
SUPERLATIVE That is the fastest, strongest, most ferocious chicken I have seen!
You must thoroughly revise the adjective and adverb tables which can be found at:
Palmer Latin Language pp. 144-145
or
Kennedy Revised Latin Primer pp. 41-44
When you are confident that you are familiar with adjectives and adverbs, follow this
link to the Adjectives and Adverbs self-assessment exercise.
Language: Week 4
Syntax Consolidation: Active Verbs
Before embarking upon advanced linguistic work, it is absolutely essential that you
ensure that your knowledge of basic Latin accidence is absolutely rock-solid.
This week, you should revise all the tenses of Active Indicative Verbs. You will need
to be able to recognise the tense and person of a Latin verb. Without a secure
knowledge of verbs you will find it very difficult to make progress in this subject.
You must thoroughly revise the active verb tables which can be found at:
Palmer Latin Language p. 154
or
Kennedy Revised Latin Primer pp. 62,64,66,68,70
When you are confident that you are familiar with active verb endings, follow this
link to the Active Verbs self-assessment exercise.
Language: Week 5
Syntax Consolidation: Passive Verbs
Before embarking upon advanced linguistic work, it is absolutely essential that you
ensure that your knowledge of basic Latin accidence is absolutely rock-solid.
3
This week, you should revise all the tenses of Passive Indicative Verbs.
You will need to be able to recognise the tense and person of a Latin verb. Without a
secure knowledge of verbs you will find it very difficult to make progress in this
subject.
You must thoroughly revise the active verb tables which can be found at:
Palmer Latin Language p. 156
or
Kennedy Revised Latin Primer pp. 72,74,76,78,80
When you are confident that you are familiar with passive verb endings, follow this
link to the Passive Verbs self-assessment exercise.
4
Language: Week 6
Direct Commands and Questions
Commands
Second person Direct Commands are expressed in Latin by the imperative:
Make sure you know how to recognise Active and Passive Imperatives!
Singular:
Plural:
ad me veni
duc eam ad carcerem!
audite hoc
sedete et tacete
- come to me
- lead her to prison
- hear this
- sit down and shut up!
For polite commands to a singular recipient, Latin might use fac (ut) or cura (ut) + present subjunctive:
cura ut scribas
- make sure that you write / be sure to write
Direct Prohibitions are expressed using noli / nolite followed by an Infinitive:
Singular:
noli lacrimare, Cornelia!
- don’t cry, Cornelia!
Plural:
nolite desperare, milites!
- don’t despair, men!
Non, Nemo, Numquam, Nihil are not used in commands:
noli quemquam mittere
- send no one - literally 'do not send anyone'
First and Third person Commands are expressed by the present (iussive) subjunctive (negative ne):
moriamur
ne exeant urbe
- let us die
- let them not go out of the city
5
Questions
Direct Questions are simple sentences in Latin.
If a question is asking for specific information, the sentence will begin with an interrogative (question word).
Some of the most common Latin interrogatives are:
qualis, -is, -e?
quantus, -a, -um?
quomodo?
quid?
qui, quae, quod?
quotiens?
quot?
uter, utra, utrum?
What sort of ...?
How big ...?
How ...?
What ...?
Which ...?
How often ...?
How many ...?
Which (of two) ...?
cur?
quare?
quis?
quando?
ubi?
quo?
unde?
Why ...?
Why ...?
Who ...?
When ...?
Where ...?
To where ...?
From where ...?
Questions which do not seek information but require an answer of 'yes' or 'no' are introduced by nonne (implying
the answer 'yes'), num (implying the answer 'no') or the suffix -ne (with no implication).
canis nonne similis lupo est?
num negare audes?
potesne dicere?
- isn't a dog like a wolf?
- do you dare to deny?
- can you say?
of course it is!
surely you don't!
yes or no)
N.B. - ne is added to the first word in the question.
In direct alternative questions, the first alternative is usually introduced by utrum (“whether”) and the second by
an, anne (both 'or') or annon ('or not'):
utrum pro servo me habes an servo? – do you regard me as a slave or a son?
isne est quem quaero annon? - is he the man I am seeking or not?
Deliberative questions occur when a character asks him or herself what course of action to pursue.
When people are “thinking out loud” in this way, they use the subjunctive mood in Latin.
Deliberative questions which debate what to do next are expressed with the present subjunctive; the imperfect
subjunctive is used to debate past actions:
quo me nunc vertam? - where am I now to turn?
quid faciam? - what am I to do?
nonne argentum redderem? – should I have given back the money?
num uxorem meam interficerem? – should I really have killed my wife?
6
Facienda
Translate into English:
nolite barbaris credere! a ducibus regimini! fortiter pugnate!
nolite quemquam mittere!
noli umquam huc venite!
vivat regina!
in hostem audacter festinemus!
quid cives eo tempore agerent?
potesne iudicare?
nonne Vergilius poeta summa calliditate est?
num dormire quam laborare mavultis?
quid nunc faciant? quo eant? nonne pecuniam reddant?
7
Language: Week 7
Infinitive and Indirect Statement
I: Use of Infinitives
The infinitive is the part of the verb which plays the part of a noun in its sentence. In
a Latin sentence an infinitive may act as a subject, object or complement.
• The infinitive is always a neuter noun; any qualifying adjectives must agree:
dulce et decorum est pro patria mori (Horace) - it is sweet and proper to die
for your country
• Some common verbs take an infinitive object
e.g.
possum, posse, potui - I am able
volo, velle, volui - I wish
soleo, solere, solitus sum - I am accustomed
timeo, timere, timui - I am afraid
conor, conari, conatus sum - I try
nolo, nolle, nolui - I do not want
malo, malle, malui - I prefer
linguam Latinam discere frustra conatus sum - I tried in vain to learn the Latin
language
• Other verbs take a person object and an infinitive object
e.g.
iubeo, iubere, iussi, iussum - I order
prohibeo. prohibere, prohibui - I prevent
veto, vetare, vetui, vetitum - I forbid, order...not
sino, sinere, sivi, situm - I allow (give permission)
patior, pati, passus sum - I allow (do not prevent)
cogo, cogere, coegi, coactum - I force, compel
pueros discedere prohibebant - they prevented the children from leaving
• An infinitive is used as the subject of a number of impersonal verbs and phrases
e.g.
(mihi) placet - it pleases me, I resolve
(me) iuvat - it pleases me
(mihi) mos est - it is my custom
(me) paenitet - I regret
(mihi) necesse est - it is necessary for me, I must
(me) pudet - I am ashamed
8
constat - it is agreed
manifestum est - it is plain
Romanis mos est barbaros opprimere - it is the custom of the Romans to crush
barbarians
• An infinitive is also used with:
paratus sum - I am ready
in animo habeo - I intend
Tenses of the Infinitive - very important!!
The Infinitive can be ACTIVE or PASSIVE in meaning, and can be PRESENT,
PERFECT or FUTURE.
Study the following table and ensure that you are familiar with the various forms of
the Infinitive (mitto is given as an example)
Present Infinitive
Active
Passive
-are, -ere, -ere, -ire
-ari, -eri, -i, -iri
mitti
mittere
to be sent
to send
Perfect Infinitive
Future Infinitive
perfect stem + -sse
misisse
past participle + esse
missus esse
to have sent
to have been sent
future participle + esse
missurus esse
supine + iri
missum iri
to be about to send
to be about to be sent
Facienda
bene vivere, fortiter mori: haec sapientis sunt
turpe est a mercatoribus decipi
solent diu cogitare qui volunt magna facere
9
non poteram magistro meo respondere
plurimi malunt ludos spectare quam laborare
Agricola suos iussit in Caledoniam progredi
pater te non sinet opera Catulli legere
Caesari placuit castra ponere
mos est Germanis etiam templa munire
me non paenitebat erravisse
10
Language: Week 8
Infinitive and Indirect Statement
II: Indirect Statement
(after verbs of saying, thinking, knowing, believing and feeling)
In English, direct speech is reported in a subordinate clause introduced by that and
having a finite verb.
Direct: “The king is a cruel man”
Indirect: He says/thinks/knows that the king is a cruel man.
Latin places the subject of the direct speech into the accusative case and the verb into
the infinitive.
Direct: “rex est crudelis”
Indirect: dicit / arbitratur / scit regem crudelem esse
Tenses of the infinitive
The tenses of the Latin infinitive do not indicate time absolutely, but only in relation
to the verb on which they depend.
The present infinitive indicates a contemporary action (same time)
The perfect infinitive indicates a prior action (past)
The future infinitive a subsequent action (future).
The table below summarises the forms of the various tenses of the infinitive:
Active
Passive
Present
Infinitive
-are, -ere, -ere, -ire
mittere, audire
-ari, -eri, -i, -iri
mitti, audiri
Perfect
Infinitive
perfect stem + -sse
misisse, audivisse
past participle + esse
missus esse, auditus esse
Future
Infinitive
future participle + esse
missurus esse, auditurus esse
supine + iri
missum iri, auditum iri
Verbs without future infinitives
Some active verbs have no future infinitive (e.g. possum); Latin must then use a
periphrastic construction consisting of futurum esse ut or fore ut + the present or
imperfect subjunctive of the verb concerned:
e.g. dico futurum esse (fore) ut possim - I say that I will be able
11
This periphrastic construction is also frequently used as an alternative to the future
passive infinitive (supine + iri).:
nuntiavit futurum esse ut oppidum mox caperetur
nuntiavit oppidum mox captum iri
- He reported that the town would soon be captured.
The table below gives examples of the sequence of infinitives in indirect statement.
Note that the tense of the introductory verb of saying, thinking etc. does not in itself
affect the tense of the infinitive.
dico
eum venire
eum venisse
eum venturum esse
I say
that he is coming
that he has come
that he will come
copias mitti
copias missas esse
copias missum iri
that forces are being
sent
that forces have been
sent
that forces will be sent
dixi
eum venire
eum venisse
eum venturum esse
I said
that he was coming
that he had come
that he would come
copias mitti
copias missas esse
copias missum iri
that forces were being
sent
that forces had been
sent
that forces would be sent
Note from the bold type that the participial elements of the infinitive must agree with
the accusative subject of the indirect speech.
• He, she, they in indirect speech must be translated by the reflexive pronoun se
whenever one of these pronouns stands for the SAME person as the subject of the
verb of saying or thinking; the reflexive possessive pronoun suus is also used if his,
her or their refers to the speaker:
scit se bene laboravisse
- he knows that he (i.e. himself) has worked well.
affirmaverunt se in patriam suam redituros esse
- they declared that they would return to their own land.
• If the second he, she, they refers to somebody ELSE, the proper part of is or ille
must be used. In that case, any possessive pronoun must be translated by eius or
eorum:
putat eum bene laboravisse
- he thinks that he (somebody else) has worked well.
12
affirmaverunt eos in patriam eorum redituros esse
- they declared that they would return to their own land.
(Remember: SE refers to the SUBJECT; EIUS refers to somebody ELSE)
• I say that... not is never translated by 'dico... non...' Instead, Latin uses the verb nego
(I deny)
negavimus nos hoc umquam fecisse
- we deny ever having done this
• VERY IMPORTANT!!
Verbs of hoping, promising, swearing and threatening generally (by the nature of
hopes, promises, oaths and threats) require accusative and future infinitive:
pollicebatur pecuniam se esse redditurum
- he kept on promising to return the money
Facienda
1. audio Marcum aegrotare
2. heri comprehendi Marcum aegrotare
3. satis constat Romulum urbem Romam condidisse
4. credidi me sonum audivisse
5. scimus amicam nobis epistulam missuram esse
6. promiserunt classem mox adventuram esse
7. num affirmas oppidum oppugnari?
8. legatus negavit copias mitti
9. ferunt coniuratos media nocte trucidatos esse
10. nuntiaverant naves a Romanis incensas esse
11. spero me rem bene gessurum esse
13
12. imperatores promittebant hostes victum iri
13. affirmaverunt se in patriam suam redituros esse
14. minatus est se pecuniam numquam redditurum esse
15. his dictis Caesar promisit fore ut castra hostium caperetur
16. pro certo habeo fore ut consules fiamus
17. legimus Nerone regnante Urbem incendio deletam esse
18. liberaberis si promiseris te praedam reddituram esse
19. custodes affirmaverunt neminem arcem intrare conatum esse
20. pro certo habeo me nimis vini bibisse
14
Language: Week 9
Participles
The participle is the part of the verb which plays the part of an adjective
Latin verbs generally have three participles:
present (e.g. amans, goes like ingens)
perfect (amatus -a –um goes like bonus)
and future (amaturus -a -um)
They most often form a substitute for a subordinate clause, and frequently are used
with a finite verb where English uses two verbs joined by and - Latin doesn't like two
main verbs in one sentence.
• The present participle is used to connect two simultaneous actions:
flumen transiens, puer de ponte decidit
- (while) crossing the river the boy fell from the bridge
• The perfect participle is used if one action follows the other:
flumen transgressus, puer urbem intravit
- (after) crossing the river the boy entered the city
• ONLY DEPONENT VERBS have perfect participles which are active in meaning:
haec locutus aciem instruxit
- having spoken in this way he drew up his battle-line
milites celeriter progressi portas oppugnaverunt
- having advanced swiftly the soldiers stormed the gates
• Otherwise the perfect participle is always PASSIVE in meaning (auditus never
means 'having heard')
captivi ab hostibus liberati domum regressi sunt
- having been released by the enemy the captives returned home
• The future participle has an ACTIVE meaning (e.g. scripturus - 'about / going to
write'). It is most usually coupled with a tense of sum to form periphrastic tenses
(locuturus eram - I was about to speak)
Participles may also be used as adjectives:
homo sapiens, canis fidens, mulieres eruditae etc.
or as nouns: praefectus - commander, facta – deeds etc.)
15
- and perhaps most famously 'morituri te salutant' - those who are about to die salute
you
Participial expressions of time
Participial constructions are often used in place of temporal clauses
So, postquam haec dixit, abiit could alternatively be written:
haec locutus abiit (past participle, deponent verb)
or his dictis abiit (ablative absolute construction)
The ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE (a phrase consisting of a noun in the ablative case and
a participle, or another noun or adjective, in agreement with it) very frequently carries
a temporal meaning.
A full explanation of this construction will be given in next week’s Language note on
the Ablative Case.
Facienda
hanc epistulam scribens paene obdormivi
gladium meum consuli ad mortem eunti dedi
equites, Gallos victos secuti, castra eorum ceperunt
urbem oppugnaturi constitimus
latrones sacra e templis urbis incensae abstulerunt
Graeci Troiam diu obsessam multis occisis ceperunt
uxor me tuas epistulas legentem in hortum vocavit
postea Britanni, qui Romanis odio erant, libertatem recipere numquam conaturi erant
Language: Week 10
16
The Ablative Case
The Ablative Case is the fifth and last of the major noun cases in Latin. Traditionally
it is said to mean “by, with or from”, but it is in reality far more versatile than this.
The Ablative Case is the “dustbin case” which collects all the other functions which
are not shared by the other cases.
Ablatives after a Preposition
Most frequently you will encounter the Ablative Case after prepositions. There are
too many preposition + Ablative combinations to be listed here, and you will need to
be aware of then and their meanings. Here are just a few:
heri cum amicis meis cenabam
- Yesterday I had dinner with my friends
latrones in montibus latebant
- The robbers were lying hidden in the mountains
me de clade sua certiorem fecit
- He told me about his disaster
ex urbe effugit
- He fled from the city
Most important in this section is the Ablative of Agent, where the person or animal
by whom something is done is expressed by the preposition a (or ab if the next word
starts with a vowel) followed by the Ablative Case:
Caesar a Bruto necatus est
- Caesar was murdered by Brutus
sacerdos, ab avibus sacris oppressus, pugionem deiecit
- The priest, having been attacked by the sacred birds, threw down his dagger
The Ablative has many further uses in Latin which do not require the presence of a
Preposition which you will encounter in Unseen Translation and set text preparation.
You will need to be aware of the range of possible functions, and apply this
knowledge in order to deduce the most likely outcome.
Remember:
Knowledge + Common Sense = Success in Latin!
Functions of the Ablative without prepositions
17
Ablative of Instrument
This expresses the thing (an inanimate object, as opposed to a person or animal) by
which something is done:
alii saxis cadentibus, alii frigore interfecti sunt
- Some were killed by falling rocks, others by the cold
Caesar, pugione percussus, humi cecidit
- Caesar fell to the floor, struck by a dagger
rex fratrem suum veneno necaverat
- The king had killed his brother with poison
Ablative of Manner
This specifies the manner in which something is done:
magna cura atque diligentia scripsit
- He wrote with great care and attention
fures cubiculum tacitis vestigiis ingressi sunt
- The thieves entered the bedroom with silent footsteps
Ablative of Cause
This is most frequently used with adjectives, passive participles and verbs which
denote a mental state or emotion:
coeptis immanibus effera Dido
- Dido, driven mad by her terrible undertakings
fratres, metu pallidi, immoti stabant
- The brothers stood motionless, pale from fear
Ablative of Separation
Used with verbs and adjectives which mean keep away from, free from, deprive, lack,
and after the adverb procul (far from)
beatus ille qui procul negotiis, solutus omni faenore
Blessed is the man who, far from business affairs and free from all debt
nemo eos isto carcere liberare poterat
Nobody could free them from that prison
18
Ablative of Comparison
There are two ways of expressing comparison in Latin.
• One is to use quam
incolae illius regionis pugnaciores sunt quam Britanni
The inhabitants of that region are more warlike than the British
• The other is to create a direct comparison by using the Ablative case:
incolae illius regionis Britannis pugnaciores sunt
The inhabitants of that region are more warlike than the British
nihil est amabilius virtute
Nothing is more worthy of love than virtue
Ablative of Measure of Difference
Used when you specify how much bigger, faster, stronger (etc.) one thing is than
another:
puella multo tristior quam antea fiebat
The girl was becoming much sadder than before
quo plus habent, eo plus cupiunt
The more they have, the more they desire
leo paulo minor erat quam equus
The lion was a little smaller than a horse
The Ablative of Measure of Difference is also used after ante or post to specify how
long before or after something occurred:
decem ante annis - ten years earlier
multis post diebus - many days later
Ablative of Description / Ablative of Quality
This is used in agreement with a noun to provide a description
senem promissa barba, horrenti capillo conspexit
He spotted an old man with a long beard and unkempt hair
Aeneas adhuc incerto animo erat
Aeneas was still uncertain in his mind
19
Ablative of “Time When”
The TIME WHEN something happens is expressed by the ablative case without
preposition of nouns which in themselves denote time.
vere - in spring
solis occasu - at sunset
eo anno - in that year
ego Capuam eo die adveni - I arrived at Capua on that day
Ablative of “Time within which”
The TIME WITHIN WHICH something occurs is also expressed by the ablative
without preposition.
brevi tempore - in a short time
quicquid est biduo sciemus - whatever it is, we shall know in (= within) two days.
This function of the Ablative is also used in negative sentences to express duration of
time:
eum multis diebus non vidi - I haven't seen him for many days.
A few verbs and adjectives also take an Ablative object
utor, usi, usus sum
+ ABL
use
fruor, frui, fructus sum
+ ABL
enjoy
fungor, fungi, functus sum
+ ABL
perform
potior, potiri, potitus sum
+ ABL
acquire, get possession of
careo, carere, carui
+ ABL
lack
egeo, egere, egui
+ ABL or GEN
lack
dignus, -a, -um
+ ABL
worthy of
fretus, -a, -um
+ ABL
relying on
orbus, -a, -um
+ ABL
deprived of
praetitus, -a, -um
+ ABL
endowed with
plenus, -a, um
+ ABL or GEN
full of
20
Ablative Absolute
An ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE phrase consists of a noun in the Ablative case and a
participle (or another noun or adjective), in agreement with it.
Most frequently the Ablative Absolute will be found at the start of the sentence,
taking the place of a cum clause, although it could be encountered anywhere in a
sentence:
duce vivente nobis adhuc spes erat
- while the general was alive we still had hope
consulibus Cicerone et Antonio templum Iovis incendebatur
- when Cicero and Antonius were consuls the temple of Jove was set on fire
urbe capta imperator obsides opesque postulavit
- when the city had been captured the commander demanded hostages and money
regibus exactis consules creati sunt
- after the kings had been expelled, consuls were created
Catilinam te repugnante accusabo
I will prosecute Catiline in spite of your resistance
BUT the Ablative Absolute construction may only be used if the noun within it has no
grammatical connection with the main sentence (absolutus = 'set free'). If there is a
grammatical connection, then another case of the participle is used.
Ablative Absolute:
milites litteris acceptis castra hostium oppugnaverunt
When the letter had been received, the soldiers attacked the enemy's camp
No Ablative Absolute:
milites litteras acceptas legerunt
The soldiers, when they had received the letter, read it
haec legens te conspexi
While I was reading this I saw you
Facienda
21
navem prima luce solvam
brevi tempore Romam adveniemus
multis vulneribus iam acceptis, suos hortatus est ut fortiter perirent
media nocte Romani demum arce potiti sunt
Graeci Troiam diu obsessam multis occisis ceperunt
quinque post mensibus quam consul creatus est, morbo affectus est
nesciebam utrum morbo an pavore pallidae essent
uxore filiisque a fugitivis necatis, vino somnioque abstinebat dum eos ulcisceretur
credo Lucilium, virum summa virtute, patre multo eloquentiorem facturum esse
metu deposito, silvam densam intravimus ut nos celaremus
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Language: Week 11
Genitive Case, Dative Uses and Predicative Dative
1. Genitive Case
The Genitive Case is another of the major noun cases in Latin. Most frequently it
denotes Possession, informing you to whom or to what something belongs, and means
“of”:
copiae regis - the forces of the king / the king’s forces
virtus hominis est robur reipublicae - a man’s courage is the state’s strength
However, in reality the Genitive Case is rather more versatile than this.
Genitives of Definition
• Defining another noun:
artem scribendi numquam cognovi - I have never learned the art of writing
Romani nomen regis oderunt - The Romans hate the name of “king”
• Defining the content of something, or the material of which it is made:
acervus frumenti - a pile of corn
• Defining the fault or crime of which somebody is accused, convicted or acquitted:
alter latrocinii reus, alter caedis convictus est - The first was accused of robbery, the
second was convicted of murder
Severus, proditionis absolutus, ex urbe effugit - Severus, acquitted of treason, fled the
city
Genitive of Quality or Description
This is used in agreement with a noun to provide a description. Number, age and size
are expressed by this kind of Genitive:
vir summae virtutis ingenuique pudoris - a man of the highest good character and
noble modesty
classis septuaginta navium - a fleet of seventy ships
olim senem centum annorum vidi - I once saw an old man who was 100 years old
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Genitive of Value
When a general value is given to something (a personal opinion of value, not a precise
cost), the following Genitives are used:
magni
tanti
parvi
quanti
plurimi
pluris
minimi
miniris
nihili
voluptatem sapiens minimi facit
- the wise man considers pleasure to have very little value
nullam possessionem pluris quam virtus aestimabat
- He regarded no possession to be more precious than virtue
Partitive Genitive
The Genitive of a noun of which a part is mentioned:
sic partem maiorem copiarum Antonius amisit
In this way Antony lost the greater part of his forces
totius Graeciae Plato doctissimus erat
Plato was the most learned man of all Greece
Catinina satis eloquentiae, parum sapientiae possidebat
Catiline had enough eloquence, but too little wisdom
olim tria milia hostium occidi!
I once killed three thousand of the enemy!
credo me nimis vini consumpsisse!
I think I’ve drunk too much wine!
Genitives with Verbs and Adjectives
A number of Verbs and Adjectives take a Genitive object, or are frequently used with
the Genitive:
potior, potiri, potitus sum
+ GEN or ABL
acquire, get possession of
egeo, egere, egui
+ GEN or ABL
lack
indigeo, indigere, indigui
+ GEN
need, require
impleo, implere, implevi
+ GEN
fill
plenus, -a, um
+ GEN or ABL
full of
memini, meminisse
+ GEN
remember
obliviscor, oblivisci, oblitus sum
+ GEN
forget
memor
+ GEN
mindful of
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immemor
+ GEN
forgetful of
misereor, misereri, miseritus sum
+ GEN
pity
Some Impersonal Verbs which convey feelings take an Accusative of the person who
feels the feeling, together with the Genitive of whatever is causing the feeling:
miseret
+ ACC
+ GEN
pity
piget
+ ACC
+ GEN
annoyance
paenitet
+ ACC
+ GEN
regret
pudet
+ ACC
+ GEN
shame
taedet
+ ACC
+ GEN
tiredness
me pudet paenitetque facinoris - I am ashamed of and regret my crime
There are no FACIENDA exercises this week.
You are probably most familiar with the idea of the Dative Case being the case which
shows TO WHOM something is given or FOR WHOM something is done.
Unfortunately, Latin is not that straightforward!
Read through the following notes on the DATIVE case, study the examples given,
and translate the sentences in the “Facienda” sections.
2. Dative uses
• The Dative of the Indirect Object is the most familiar use of the Dative Case in
Latin. It is used with verbs of giving, telling, showing, saying and promising.
mihi fabulam mirabilem narra; ego tibi librum pretiosum ostendam
- tell me a wonderful story; I will show you an expensive book
• The Dative Case also follows adjectives which imply nearness, likeness, help,
kindness, trust, obedience, fitness or any opposite idea
homini fidelissimi sunt equus et canis
- the horse and dog are the most faithful animals to man
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• The Dative of Advantage tells you the person (or thing) to whose advantage
something is done
mater filio donum quaerebat
- Mother was looking for a present for her son
• A Dative Indirect Object (Dative of Disadvantage) is also used with verbs of taking
away, where the word from would be used in English. The verbs concerned are aufero
(I remove), adimo (I take away), eripio (I snatch away, rescue)
heros filiam pulchram latronibus eripuit
- the hero rescued the beautiful girl from the robbers
• A Dative of Purpose is used with some verbs, especially those meaning choose or
appoint, to express the end in view
Caesar munitioni castrorum tempus reliquit
- Caesar left time for fortifying the camp
dies colloquio constituta est
- a day was chosen for the meeting
3. Dative objects of verbs
Some transitive verbs in English are translated by intransitive verbs in Latin (i.e. they
govern an indirect (dative) object instead of a direct (accusative) object). You will
need to get to know which verbs take dative objects...
The most frequent verbs of this kind are:
• Many verbs of aiding (auxilior, subvenio), favouring (faveo, studeo), obeying
(pareo, obsequor), pleasing (placeo), serving (servio)
sic agam, ut magistro meo placet
- I will act in such a way as pleases my teacher
• Verbs of injuring (noceo), opposing (adversor, obsto, repugno), displeasing
(displiceo)
haec res omnibus hominibus nocet
- this state of affairs harms all men
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gallinae nobis obstant in via stantes
- the chickens hinder us (get in our way) by standing in the road
• Verbs of commanding (impero, praecipio), persuading (suadeo, persuadeo),
trusting (fido, credo), distrusting (diffido), sparing (parco), pardoning (ignosco),
envying (invideo), being angry (irascor)
victis victor pepercit
- the conqueror spared the defeated
virtuti suorum credebat; sibi tamen irascebat
- he trusted the courage of his men, but he was angry with himself
• Most compounds of sum govern a dative
(exceptions to this rule: possum, absum, insum)
nuptiis adsumus - we are present at the wedding
his rebus non interfuimus - we did not take part in these events
omnibus Druidibus praeest unus - one man is in command of all the Druids
Facienda I
Caesar genti isti bellum intulit, quod provinciae nocuerant
respondi neminem fere ei iam favere; illi autem noluerunt mihi credere
ars mea mihi prodest; pecunia tamen mihi deest
4. Passive of intransitive verbs
Unlike English, Latin can use the passive voice of intransitive verbs, but only
impersonally, that is, in the THIRD PERSON SINGULAR FORM without a
nominative subject at all. (The word which should be taken as the subject of the
English sentence will often be in the Dative case in Latin).
qui invident egent, illis quibus invidetur, i rem habent
- people who are envious are in need; but those who are envied have the stuff
If a participle forms part of an impersonal verb, it is always neuter and singular:
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nobis ab amicis aegre persuasum est
- we were barely persuaded by our friends
Note here that, as the verb persuadeo is intransitive in Latin (it takes a Dative object),
it automatically reverts to the third person singular form when turned Passive, and the
person or persons being persuaded go into the Dative case.
The idea of impersonal passives is often to focus attention on the action, as the
person(s) doing the action is too vague or too obvious to mention.
Note the idioms (most commonly from the verbs eo, venio, curro, clamo, pugno):
sic itur ad astra - that is the way to the stars
postquam ventum est - after (our) arrival
Facienda II
acriter pugnatum est dum nox advenit
nobis ad urbem quinto die perventum est
Gallis a legionibus nostris parcetur, quamquam nobis tam diu restiterunt
5. Predicative Dative
The verb esse (to be, to serve as) sometimes has as its complement a noun in the
dative case: this is called the Predicative Dative. The expressions which involve a
predicative dative construction vary, e.g.:
auxilio esse - to be helpful
curae esse - to be an anxiety
praesidio esse - to protect (etc.)
subsidio esse - to support,relieve
impedimento esse - to hinder
cordi esse - to be dear
usui esse - to be useful
oneri esse - to be a burden
exitio esse - to be fatal
dedecori esse - to be disgraceful
documento esse - to be proof
detrimento esse - to cause loss
• The Predicative Dative is usually accompanied by another dative indicating the
person affected (dative of advantage).
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senectus mihi impedimento est
- old age is a hindrance to me (in effect impedimento means 'a source of hindrance,
something serving as a hindrance')
• A Predicative Dative is always singular, and cannot be qualified by an adjective,
except an adjective of quantity or size (magnus, maximus, quantus, tantus).
illud omnibus magno usui erat - that was of great use to everybody
incolae nobis minimae curae sunt - the inhabitants are of the least anxiety to us
• The predicative dative may also be used after verbs like habeo (I consider as), duco
(I reckon as), eligo (I choose as), and (in military language) after verbs meaning
come, go, send, leave.
habere quaestui rem publicam turpe est - it is disgraceful to treat the state as a
source of gain.
dono dare - to give as a present
unam cohortem castris praesidio reliquit - he left one cohort to garrison / guard the
camp
The verb odi, odisse (to hate) has no passive. Latin instead uses odio esse + Dative (to
be hateful to).
gladiatores omnibus civibus odio sunt - Gladiators are hated by all citizens
Facienda III
hoc Lepido dedecori magno erat
tempestas hostibus exitio, classi nostrae saluti erat
cur Antonius odio erat omnibus, quibus libertas cordi erat?
auxilia dexterae alae subsidio venerunt
mulieres puerosque oppido praesidio elegerunt
prudentia maiorum nobis exemplo semper sit!
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Language: Week 12
Relative Clauses
Relative Clauses are clauses which give more information about the noun to which
they refer (called the antecedent)
The Relative Pronoun, which introduces these clauses, agrees in number and gender
with the noun it describes.
The case of the Relative Pronoun depends on its function within its own clause:
ancillae, quae totum diem laboraverant, defessae erant
The slave-girls, who had worked all day, were exhausted
The Relative Pronoun (quae) is feminine and plural, because it refers to ancillae; it is
nominative, because the slave-girls are the subject of laborabant.
ancillae, quas dominus in Britannia emerat, pulcherrimae erant
The slave-girls, whom the master had bought in Britain, were very beautiful
The Relative Pronoun (quas) is feminine and plural again, referring back to ancillae.
But this time it is accusative, because the slave-girls are the object of emerat.
Here are the forms of the Relative Pronoun in Latin:
SINGULAR
PLURAL
masculine
feminine
neuter
masculine
feminine
neuter
qui
quae
quod
NOMINATIVE
qui
quae
quae
quem
quam
quod
ACCUSATIVE
quos
quas
quae
cuius
cuius
cuius
GENITIVE
quorum
quarum
quorum
cui
cui
cui
DATIVE
quibus
quibus
quibus
quo
qua
quo
ABLATIVE
quibus
quibus
quibus
Facienda I
Itandem nautae, qui magnis tempestatibus impediti erant, ad portum incolumes
pervenerunt
praemium, quod promiserat, mihi dare noluit
nonne puellam vides, cuius pater a latronibus captus est?
mercatorem, cui pecuniam dedisti, interficere volo
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Further Uses of Relative Clauses
1. LINKING QUI
At the beginning of a sentence, a Relative Pronoun may be used to link to the
previous sentence. Under these circumstances, do not translate as “who” or “which”:
Caesar equites statim emisit. qui cum proelium commisissent, hostes terga verterunt
Caesar sent out cavalry at once. When they had joined battle, the enemy turned and
fled
Some other common linking phrases (really useful to learn!):
quo cognito… When this had been found out…
quibus cognitis… When these things had come to light…
quo facto… This done…
quibus factis When these things had been done…
quo dicto… Having said this / When this had been said…
quibus dictis… When these things had been said / After saying these things…
2. RELATIVE CLAUSES OF PURPOSE AND RESULT
• If the verb in the Relative Clause is subjunctive, the idea is often one of Purpose:
legatos misit qui nuntiarent Brutum advenisse
He sent envoys to report (= who were to report) that Brutus had arrived
• The Relative Pronoun can also appear in Result Clauses:
non eram tam stultus qui fratri crederem
I wasn’t so stupid as to trust my brother
• The following phrases are also followed by subjunctive verbs, and are types of
Result Clause:
quippe qui… in that he…
dignus qui… worthy to…
is qui… the kind of person who…
sunt qui… there are those who…
sunt qui Romanos non ament
There are those who do not love the Romans
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Caesar non erat is qui periculum timeret
Caesar was not the kind of man to fear danger
Facienda II
quo facto, speculatores praemissi sunt qui silvas explorarent
quibus dictis, servo pecuniam dedit qua panem vinumque emeret
filia tua non est digna quae mihi nubeat
erant permulti qui Caesaris verbis non crederent
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Language: Week 13
Subjunctive Verbs and Independent Subjunctives
Before embarking upon advanced linguistic work, it is absolutely essential to ensure
that your knowledge of basic Latin accidence is absolutely rock-solid.
This week, you should revise all the tenses of Subjunctive Verbs.
You will need to be able to recognise the tense and person of a Latin verb. Without a
secure knowledge of verbs you will find it very difficult to make progress in this
subject.
You must thoroughly revise the active verb tables which can be found at:
Palmer Latin Language pp. 155 and 157
or
Kennedy Revised Latin Primer pp. 63, 65, 67, 69, 71, 73, 75, 77, 79, 81
Many of the patterns of subjunctive verbs are very distinctive, and you should have
little trouble in recognising them.
THEN study how Subjunctive verbs are used as the main verb in a Latin sentence:
Independent Subjunctives
Jussive, Optative, Deliberative, Potential
• Jussive Subjunctives are used mainly in 1st and 3rd person direct commands and
prohibitions in the present subjunctive (negative ne); sometimes ne + perfect
subjunctive is used for 2nd person prohibitions:
fugiant ignavi - let the cowards run away
fortiter moriamur - let us die bravely
milites neve culpent neve contemnant ducem
- let the soldiers neither blame nor despise their general
• Optative Subjunctives express a wish, desire or prayer. These wishes are very
often introduced by utinam, or by utinam ne if the wish is negative. (Negative wishes
must always include ne).
Tense rules:
The PRESENT subjunctive introduces a wish for the future
The IMPERFECT subjunctive introduces a wish for present time (wishes that
something should be so now)
The PLUPERFECT subjunctive introduces a wish for the past (wishes that something
had happened)
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utinam veniant - if only they would come!
(refers to the future, therefore present subj.)
utinam Cicero adesset - if only Cicero were here!
(now, therefore imperfect subj.)
utinam ne quid dixissetis - I wish you (pl.) hadn't said anything!
(in the past; pluperfect subj.)
• Deliberative Subjunctives are used, most often in deliberative questions, to discuss
possible courses of action: what ought to be done. The PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE
is used to refer to (present and) future times, the IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE to
the past. NOTE that the negative of this type of subjunctive is non. utrum... an may
introduce alternative deliberatives.
quo me nunc vertam? quid faciam?
- Where am I now to turn? What am I to do?
quomodo exploratores insidias vitarent?
- How were the scouts to avoid the ambush?
nonne argentum redderem? non redderes
- Should I have returned the money? You should not
• Potential Subjunctives express what would happen or might have happened under
certain circumstances. One verbal activity is dependent on the fulfilment of another
(which either hasn't or won't happen yet). The tense rule is the same as that given for
Optative Subjunctives above.
Subjunctives of this sort often occur in Conditional Sentences:
si esset in terris, rideret Democritus
- If Democritus were on earth, he would be laughing
But, by suppressing the condition necessary to fulfil this condition, the same potential
idea may be expressed
quid tu tum fecisses? - What would you have done then?
hoc tu dicere audeas? - Would you dare to say this?
The most common Potential Subjunctives are velim/vellem, nolim/nollem, and
malim/mallem.
They govern an infinitive (I should like to go - velim ire) if there is no change of
subject, but if there is (e.g. I should like you to go) they are followed directly by an
optative subjunctive (without ut or any other conjunction). They basically introduce
wishes that cannot be or have not been fulfilled:
wish for the future:
nolim tam felices sint - I (could) wish they wouldn't be so lucky
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wish for the present:
velim adesses - I wish you were here
wish for the past:
mallem abissent - I would rather they had gone (i.e. it is too late)
vellem adesse posset Paenaetius – I wish Panaetius could be present
vellem me ad cenam invitasses - I wish you had invited me to dinner
(This construction amounts to little more than a polite expression of volo; cf. French
“je voudrais”)
Take note of these Potential subjunctives:
crederes / putares - you would have thought... / you would think
diceres - you would have said... / you would say
These potential subjunctives are prime candidates for introducing indirect statements:
nihil respondit: putares eum non audivisse
- He made no reply: you would have thought he had not heard
Facienda
summa virtute pereamus; cives ne umquam dicent nos terga in hostes vertisse
utinam haberemus satis cibi aquaeque ut supersimus
utinam ne patres nostri in servitudinem coacti essent; liberi nostri quoque servi
infestorum Romanorum erunt.
cum patrem meum mortuum invenissem, quid agerem, iudices?
quotiens obsides a Romanis captos easdem contumelias parerentur?
velim Romam ire ut Aram Pacis videam; malim autem mecum venias
nautae in litore immoti iacebat; putares eos mortuos esse
quo confugiamus? utinam patriam haberemus quo eamus
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Language: Week 14
Indirect (Reported) Commands, Exhortations and Purpose Clauses
In a narrative text, Latin authors rarely used direct speech. Instead, all acts of speech
(including statements, commands and questions) are expressed by Indirect
constructions. We have already studied Indirect Statements – we are now going to
look at Indirect Commands.
The umbrella term 'commands' includes requests, advice, acts of persuasion,
encouragement and so on. There are two possible constructions, the choice of which
will depend upon the choice of main verb.
1. Accusative and Infinitive
iubeo (I order)
veto (I forbid)
sino (I allow)
prohibeo (I prevent)
After these main verbs, the recipient of the order is put into the accusative case and
the order into the infinitive:
te ire veto - I am ordering you not to go
eum discedere sivi - I let him leave
Facienda I
Imagister nos iussit diligenter laborare
te veto hos libros scelestissimos legere!
2. Noun clause
All other verbs of commanding introduce clauses containing a subjunctive verb. The
Indirect Command construction consists of:
• An introductory verb
Some likely suspects:
impero – I order
rogo – I ask
praecipio – I instruct
persuadeo – I persuade
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oro – I beg
hortor – I urge
invito – I invite
moneo – I warn, advise
• The word ut in a positive command, or ne in a prohibition
• A subjunctive verb (either present or imperfect subjunctive)
Present Subjunctive after a Primary Sequence main verb
Imperfect Subjunctive in Historic Sequence
Sequence of tenses
A sentence is in primary sequence if its main verb is in one of the following tenses:
Present, Future, Future Perfect, Perfect (meaning 'I have ...-ed only)
A sentence is in historic sequence if its main verb is in one of the following tenses:
Imperfect, Pluperfect, Perfect.
Examples:
(Primary Sequence)
nos hortatur ne cedamus
he exhorts us not to yield
(Historic / Secondary Sequence)
amicos oravit ut manerent
he begged his friends to stay
As in indirect statements, se and suus are used to refer back to the speaker of the
command:
avunculus me rogavit ut secum irem
my uncle asked me to go with him
Facienda II
tyrannum etiam atque etiam oramus ut mulieribus parcat
argentarius servis imperavit ut cenam pararent
pater mihi imperavit ne flumen appropinquarem; nonne ei paream?
eos hortatus sum ut confiterentur se arma contra nos sumpsisse
Varro Minucium admonuerat ne hostes duce absente oppugnaret
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fratres a me petunt ut te doceam eos nolle fundum vendere
Purpose Clauses
(also called Final Clauses)
The purpose or aim of the action described in the principal clause, expressed in
English by a phrase or a clause (e.g. "I've been to London to see the queen") is
expressed in Latin by a Purpose Clause.
Purpose clauses are introduced by ut ('so that') or by ne ('so that... not', 'lest') if the
purpose of the principal action is negative.
The verb in the purpose clause is present subjunctive in primary sequence,
imperfect subjunctive in historic sequence.
multi alios laudant, ut ab illis laudentur
many men praise others so that they may be praised by them
gladium rapui ut captivum interficerem
I seized a sword in order to kill the prisoner
fur vestimenta atra gerebat ne conspiceretur
The thief wore dark clothes so as not to be seen
As a purpose clause reflects a thought or idea in somebody's mind, se and suus are
used reflexively in purpose clauses to refer to the thinker (as in indirect statement).
iudicibus praemia dedit ut se absolverent he gave the jurors bribes so that they would acquit him
Relative Clauses of Purpose
A positive purpose may be expressed by a RELATIVE CLAUSE introduced by the
appropriate form of the relative pronoun qui instead of ut. This construction is
especially common when the main verb means 'send', 'choose' or 'leave':
Clusini legatos Romam, qui auxilium a senatu peterent, miserunt
the Clusini sent ambassadors to Rome to seek aid from the senate
librum mihi dedit quem legerem
he gave me a book (which I was) to read
nullam pecuniam habeo qua cibum emam
I have no money with which to buy food
If a purpose clause contains a comparative word, it is introduced by quo, followed
immediately by the comparative word (quo is ablative of measure of difference 'by
which the more').
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castella communit quo facilius eos prohibere possit (Caesar)
he strengthens the forts in order that he might keep them off more easily
Facienda
poeta Athenas iter faciet ut templa pulcherrima spectet
milites quam fortissime pugnabant ne aquilas ammitterent
exploratores pontem refregerunt ne hostes se sequerentur
Augustus custodibus suis praemia dabat quo carius se amarent
Caesar mulieres relinquet quae oppidum custodiant
piratae in portum navigaverunt ut naves nostras incenderent.
Hannibal venenum sumpsit ne a Romanis caperetur
viginti milia civium convenerant qui munera spectarent
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Language: Week 15
Result Clauses
(also called Consecutive Clauses)
Result clauses define the consequence of what is stated in the principal sentence. They
are introduced by ut and contain a verb in the subjunctive mood. Since result clauses
express events rather than ideas, they do not follow the usual rules for sequence of
tenses - an event in the past (historic sequence) may have consequences in the present
or future (primary sequence). Broadly speaking, the tense of the subjunctive used will
be the same as one would expect if it were an indicative sentence, so translate what
you see!
I was tired + I slept for a long time
= I was so tired that I slept for a long time
defessus eram + diu dormivi
= tam defessus eram ut diu dormiverim (perfect subjunctive)
in Lucullo tanta prudentia fuit ut hodie stet Asia Luculli institutis servandis
Lucullus possessed so much foresight that Asia stands today by preserving his
arrangements
tanta fuit pestis ut permulti quotidie perirent, rex ipse morbo absumptus sit
So great was the plague that many were dying each day, and the king himself was
killed by the disease
The main clause usually contains a demonstrative adverb or adjective as a 'signpost',
such as:
tam - so, to such an extent
adeo - to such an extent
sic - in such a way
ita - in such a way
tot - so many
talis - of such a kind
tantopere - to such an extent
eiusmodi - of such a kind
tantus -a -um - so great
is/ea - of such a kind (usu. with qui, see below)
A result clause is made negative by ut... non...
tanta fuit viri moderatio ut repugnanti mihi non irasceretur
The man's self-control was so great that he was not angry with me when I opposed
him
Consequently the following differences between negative purpose and negative result
clauses are most important:
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Purpose
Result
That not
ne
ut non
That nobody
ne quis
ut nemo
That nothing
ne quid
ut nihil
That no....
ne ullus
ut nullus
That never
ne umquam
ut numquam
That nowhere
ne usquam
ut nusquam
Contrast the following purpose and result clauses:
portae clausae sunt ne quis urbem relinqueret
The gates were shut so that no one might leave the city
tantus fuit omnium metus ut nemo urbem reliquerit
The fear of all men was so great that no one (actually) left the city
A result clause is also used with the following idioms:
• The impersonal phrase tantum abest ut + subjunctive
tantum abest ut nostra miremur, ut nobis non satisfaciat ipse Demosthenes
So far am I from admiring my own productions that Demosthenes himself does not
satisfy me
• with certain VERBS OF HAPPENING AND ACHIEVING: accidit ut, perficio ut,
facio ut
• in GENERIC RELATIVE CLAUSES, which characterise or make a
generalisation:
nemo tam stultus erat qui illud crederet - noone was so stupid as to believe that
quis est tam audax qui neget? - who is so bold as to refuse?
• after is sum qui:
ea est Romana gens quae victa quiescere nesciat
Such is the Roman race that it does not know how to be at peace when conquered
• after sunt qui, erant qui (there are/were those who...):
sunt quae nautas non ament - there are women who do not love sailors
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• after numerical expressions such as multi sunt qui, pauci sunt qui, solus sum qui
• after the adjectives dignus (worthy), indignus (unworthy), idoneus (suitable)
After a negative main clause, if the relative clause is itself negative, qui...non... is
replaced by quin:
nemo fere tam sapiens est quin aliquando erre
Hardly anyone is so wise as not to make the occasional mistaket
Facienda
dux ita clamavit ut omnes milites eum timuerint
tanta erat fama exercitus Romanorum ut omnes gentes statim cederent
cena talis est ut eam edere non possimus
tot homines ad iudicium convenerunt ut iudex non audiretur
iste servus tam ignavus est ut numquam laboret nec umquam mihi pareat
ea est cui dii faveant
Nerone regnante, nemo tam stultus erat quin imperatorem laudaret
tanta est Christianorum constantia ut nolint deos nostros precari
erant qui negarent se coniurationi ulli interfuisse
adeo aegrotabat ut medicum arcessiverim
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Language: Week 16
Indirect Questions
An Indirect Question is a noun clause dependent upon a verb of asking, enquiring,
knowing, telling etc., introduced by an interrogative word and with its verb in the
subjunctive. The interrogative forms are exactly the same as those used for direct
questions, except that num means 'whether'.
The tense of subjunctive used in an indirect question depends upon sequence of tenses
(primary or historic tense of main verb), but broadly corresponds to the tense used
in English. The following table should make things clearer:
question refers to
present
question refers to
past
question refers to
future
Direct
Question
What are you doing?
quid facis?
What did you do?
quid fecisti?
What will you do?
quid facies?
Indirect
Question
Primary
Sequence
He asks what I am
doing
rogat quid faciam
(present subjunctive)
He asks what I did
He asks what I will do
rogat quid fecerim
rogat quid facturus
(perfect subjunctive) sim
(future subjunctive)
Indirect
Question
Historic
Sequence
He asked what I was
doing
rogavit quid facerem
(imperfect
subjunctive)
He asked what I had
done
rogavit quid
fecissem
(pluperfect
subjunctive)
He asked what I
would do
rogavit quid facturus
essem
(future perfect
subjunctive)
A wide range of expressions may introduce a reported question (real or implied), so
be wary!
'Any' in a question (direct or indirect) is expressed by num quis or num quid which
must not be separated if used:
num quis adest? - is there anybody there?
rogaverunt num quid amississem - they asked whether I had lost anything
Facienda
eum rogavi quis esset; quo iret; quando perventurus esset
rogaverunt num quid audivissem
nemo pro certo habet cur Catilina haec fecerit
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mox vides quanta multitudo ad hoc iudicium convenerit
Epaminondas mirabatur num clipeus fracturus esset
nescio utrum sapiens an stultus sit
dominum iratum docuimus quo coqui nocte fugissent
senex obliviscitur quot annos in eodem vico habitet
incertum erat uter consul victoriam maiorem reportavisset
servi nesciunt num dominus se liberaturus sit
Plinio placuit ut Traianum rogaret num ipse cuperet ut Christiani punirentur
Caesar dixit se cognoscere velle qualis et quanta esset insula
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Language: Week 17
Causal Clauses
These are clauses which in Latin give a reason or explanation for the verb in the main
sentence.
• In Latin, the conjunctions quod, quia (because), quoniam, quando (since) introduce
an adverbial clause whose verb is INDICATIVE when the speaker or writer
vouches for the reason - that is, when the reason given for the verb in the main
sentence is presented as plain fact:
hostes, quoniam iam nox erat, domum discesserunt
- The enemy went home because it was now night
adsunt propterea quod officium sequuntur
- They are present because they are doing their duty
Note that, as in the above example, a demonstrative particle in the main clause (e.g.
propterea, eo, idcirco, ideo, hanc ob causam) may point to the causal clause.
• Quod, quia, quando and quoniam introduce a causal clause whose verb is
SUBJUNCTIVE either when the clause forms part of indirect speech or of
virtual indirect speech.
Virtual indirect speech is when the writer or speaker does not himself vouch for the
reason given, but reports the alleged reason given by somebody else, usually the
protagonist(s):
discesserunt quoniam fessi essent
- they departed because (they said) they were tired
{implication: they may or may not actually have been tired}
mihi irascitur, quod eum neglexerim
- he is angry with me because (he says) I have neglected him
This sort of subjunctive clause is very common after words of accusing, praising,
complaining, blaming etc. in the main clause (because the reasons for such emotions
are naturally subjective). Compare these two sentences which can both be translated
as “The king was hated by his subjects because he had broken the laws”:
rex civibus odio erat, quod leges violavisset - (alleged reason, subjunctive)
rex civibus odio erat, quod leges violaverat - (indicative verb, reporting a fact)
• If a reason is mentioned only to be rejected, the causal clause is introduced by non
quod or non quo and contains a verb in the SUBJUNCTIVE mood.
Sometimes the true reason follows in a clause introduced by sed quod or sed quia and
containing a verb in the indicative:
45
haec feci, non quo tui me taedeat, sed quod abire cupio
- I did this, not because I am fed up with you but because I want to leave
• A relative clause may have a causal meaning. Causal relative clauses always
contain a SUBJUNCTIVE verb and are frequently preceded by quippe:
hostes, qui adventum Caesaris ignorarent, flumen transierunt
- The enemy, since they were unaware of Caesar's arrival, crossed the river
consul, quippe qui praemonitus esset, haec exspectabat
- The consul expected these events, because he had been forewarned
• Quod is also used (with an indicative verb) in some expressions where English has
not 'because' but phrases like 'that, the fact that'. Some of these verbs and expressions
are listed here:
gaudeo quod - I am glad / rejoice that...
doleo quod - I am sorry that...
aegre fero quod - I am annoyed that...
omitto quod - I leave out the fact that
praetereo quod - I pass over the fact that...
addo quod - I add the fact that...
magnum est quod - it is no small thing that...
(huc) accedit quod - there is the further fact that...
Facienda
tacent idcirco quia periculum timent
ex acie effugi non quod mortem timeam, sed quod pila mea fracta erant
noctu in foro ambulabat Themistocles, quod dormire non posset
custodes confecti erant, qui per noctem vigilavissent
omitto quod reus uxorem meam tresque filias parvas trucidavit
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Language: Week 18
Concessive Clauses
Concessive clauses are introduced in English by although, even if etc. and concede
either a fact or a possibility in spite of which the statement made in the main sentence
is true. In Latin, the conjunctions etsi, tametsi, etiamsi (even if) and quamquam,
quamvis, licet (although) may introduce a concessive clause.
• If the concession is admitted as a fact, Latin uses quamquam, etsi or tametsi with an
INDICATIVE verb, (or cum + subjunctive).
tamen is frequently found in the main clause to mark the contrast:
etiamsi tacent, satis dicunt (Cicero)
- Even if they are silent, they say enough
Romani quamquam itinere et aestu fessi erant, tamen obviam hostibus procedunt
- Though the Romans were tired from the march and heat, yet they advanced to meet
the enemy.
• If the concession is admitted as a possibility (which may or may not happen), the
Latin conjunctions etsi, etiamsi and tametsi are used with the SUBJUNCTIVE mood.
etiamsi non adiuves, haec facere possim
Even if you were not to help, I should be able to do this.
vera loqui, etsi meum ingenium non moneret, necessitas cogit
Even if my character were not bidding me (and it is), necessity forces me to tell the
truth
• The concessive 'however' followed by an adjective or adverb (e.g. “However fast I
run…”) is translated by quamvis followed by the SUBJUNCTIVE:
quamvis strenue labores, non ad tempus opus conficies
However hard you work, you will not finish the task in time
• A relative clause with concessive meaning will contain a SUBJUNCTIVE:
Caesar, qui illud suspicaretur, tamen obsides dimisit
Although Caesar suspected that, he released the hostages
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Facienda
pecuniosus homo, quamvis sit nocens, damnari non potest
quamquam libros praeclarorum philosophorum legisti, non es sapiens quod eos non
intellegas
quamvis pulchra sit, Matildam in matrimonium non ducam, quod peregrina est
etsi medicum statim arcessivissemus, frustra venisset
etiamsi solus supersim, tamen in acie perdurem
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Language: Week 19
Temporal Clauses, Phrases and Verbs of Fearing
Temporal Clauses are adverbial clauses which define the time when the action of the
main verb occurs in relation to another action. They are introduced by conjunctions
which in themselves define the temporal relation between the two parts of the
sentence.
Conjunctions introducing a temporal clause prior to the action of the main verb:
postquam - after that, after
ubi - when
cum - when
ut - as
simulac - as soon as
quotiens - every time that
ut primum - as soon as / the first moment that
cum primum - as soon as / the first moment that
Conjunctions introducing clauses contemporaneous with the main action:
dum - while, until quamdiu - as long as
donec - while, until cum - when
quoad - up to the time that
Conjunctions introducing clauses subsequent to the main action:
antequam - before that, before
priusquam - before
Ut, postquam, simulac, cum primum, ut primum, ubi, quotiens
• GENERALLY USED WITH AN INDICATIVE VERB IN THE TEMPORAL
CLAUSE.
• Latin uses the Future / Future Perfect and Perfect tenses in the temporal clause
where idiomatic (and less precise) English prefers the Present and Pluperfect tenses
respectively.
olea ubi matura erit quam primum cogi oportet (Cato)
- When the olive is ripe, it must be gathered as soon as possible
quae simulac audierit, abibit –
- As soon as he hears this, he will go away
eo postquam Caesar pervenit, obsides, arma poposcit (Caesar)
- After Caesar had arrived there, he demanded hostages and weapons
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• Latin uses the Pluperfect tense after ubi, ut, simulac and quotiens to stress the
repeated occurance of the act in the temporal clause.
hostes, ubi aliquos egredientes conspexerant, adoriebantur
- Whenever the enemy saw anybody disembarking, they attacked them.
Facienda I
simulac cladem audivit, Lentulus Caesari copias auxilio adduxit
cum primum Cicero leges illas rogaverit, omnibus populis odio erit
Antequam, priusquam
• These are compound conjunctions, whose constituent words need not come together,
although quam must stand at the head of the time clause.
• The indicative is used when antequam and priusquam introduce a clause indicating
a relation purely of time.
priusquam respondeo, de amicitia pauca dicam (Cicero)
- Before I answer, I will say a few things about friendship.
• BUT when the idea of an end in view, a motive, or a result prevented is present in
addition to the concept of time, the subjunctive is used, in either the Present or
Imperfect tense according to sequence:
castra prius capere conati sunt quam nox adveniret - They tried to capture the camp
before night fell. (i.e. 'before night could fall')
Facienda II
celeriter effugit priusquam magister se videret
non prius abiit quam pecuniam accepit
gladiatores impetum fecerunt priusquam e pavore animos reciperemus
antequam sententiam dicistis, patres conscripti, volo captivos rogare num
quid habeant quod pro salute sua dicent
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Cum
• When the clause introduced by cum refers to a present or future action, it contains a
verb in the INDICATIVE.
Latin requires greater temporal precision than English, and for example often uses the
future perfect indicative where English has an ordinary future tense.
poenam lues, cum venerit solvendi dies - You will pay the penalty when the day of
payment comes
• But when the clause introduced by cum refers to an action in the past, the verb is
generally SUBJUNCTIVE.
The Imperfect and Pluperfect tenses are used depending upon whether the action of
the temporal clause happens at the same time as or before that of the main verb.
Imperfect Subjunctive: Simultaneous Actions
cum haec diceret, milites eum occiderunt
- When (= while) he was saying these things, the soldiers struck him down
Pluperfect Subjunctive: Consecutive actions
cum haec dixisset, milites eum occiderunt
- When (= after) he had said these things, the soldiers struck him down
• A cum clause in which the idea of CAUSE or CONCESSION predominates over
that of time always has a SUBJUNCTIVE verb, whatever the sequence:
cum liber esse possit, servire mavult
- Although he might be free, he prefers to be a slave.
quae cum ita sint, Romam ibo
- Since these are the circumstances, I will go to Rome.
quae cum ita essent....
- Since this was so... / these were the circumstances...
• Cum can, when referring to a past action, be used with the INDICATIVE in the
following cases:
i) When cum has a frequentative / indefinite meaning: 'whenever'.
cum me vocaverit, ibo - Whenever she calls me, I will go
cum me vocavit, eo - Whenever she calls me, I go
cum me vocaverat, ibam - Whenever she called me, I wente.g. cum rosam viderat, tum
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ver esse arbitrabatur (Cicero)
- Whenever he saw a rose, he thought it was springtime
ii) If the cum clause, though grammatically subordinate, contains the chief idea of the
sentence, whereas the main clause marks the time of the event - the inverted cum
clause.
The verb in the cum clause will usually be in the Perfect or Historic Present tense; the
main verb is usually Imperfect or Pluperfect.
hostes subibant muros, cum repente eruperunt Romani
- The enemy were nearing the walls, when suddenly the Romans rushed out.
SUMMARY : CUM
(tenses and moods of the verb used in the cum clause)
CUM = WHEN: indicative in primary sequence; subjunctive in historic sequence
CUM = SINCE, ALTHOUGH, WHEREAS: subjunctive always
CUM = WHENEVER: indicative
(tense of indicative = future perfect, perfect or pluperfect)
CUM = WHEN (in inverted time clause): indicative
Facienda III
cum Athenas pervenero in Parthenone deos precabor
cum proditor signum dedisset, Graeci statim arcem oppugnaverunt
quae cum ita essent, numquam postea ausus sum ei credere
cum cecini aliquis in me lapides iacit
cum dux contionem apud milites habuerat nemo fere applaudebat
cum nuntiatum esset Nervios hiberna oppugnavisse, Caesar magnis itineribus in fines
eorum progressus est
captivi iam paene effugerunt cum a custodibus in turri sensi sunt
cum epistulam legerem custodes armati ianuam fregerunt
Verbs of Fearing
The most common verbs of fearing in Latin are:
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timeo, timere, timui
metuo, metuere, metui
vereor, vereri, veritus sum
The simplest way to express an idea of “fearing to do something” in Latin is to use the
verb timeo + PRESENT INFINITIVE
timeo illam arcem intrare
- I am afraid to enter that castle
timebant mori - They were afraid to die
This construction is not very versatile; you can’t express ideas such as “He was afraid
that somebody else would do something”.
More frequently, therefore, you will find that a verb of fearing will introduce a clause
containing a SUBJUNCTIVE VERB. These clauses will look very similar to Indirect
Commands or Purpose Clauses.
Reflexive pronouns such as se and suus will refer back to the subject of the main verb.
• If the clause is introduced by NE + SUBJUNCTIVE, then it means that somebody is
afraid that something will happen:
puer timet ne magister se puniat (present subjunctive)
- The boy is afraid that the teacher will punish him
puer veritur ne servi effugerint (perfect subjunctive)
- The boy is afraid that the slaves have run away
puer metuebat ne hostes urbem oppugnarent (imperfect subjunctive)
- The boy was afraid that the enemy would storm the city
puer verebatur ne fures gemmas suas abstulissent (pluperfect subj.)
- The boy was afraid that the thieves had stolen his jewels
• If the clause is introduced by UT + SUBJUNCTIVE, then the sentence means that
somebody is afraid that something will not happen:
mercatores timent ut sibi pecuniam dem (present subjunctive)
- The merchants are afraid that I will not give them money
mercatores timent ut Romani ab Hannibale vicerint (perfect subj.)
- The merchants are afraid that the Romans have been defeated by Hannibal
mercatores veriti sunt ut feminae advenirent
- The merchants feared that the women would not come
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mercatores timebant ut senex periisset (pluperfect subjunctive)
- The merchants were afraid that the old man had not died
• The perfect participle veritus ne means fearing that…
veriti ne umbram videremus, in silvam intrare nolebamus
- Fearing that we would see a ghost, we refused to enter the wood
Facienda
metuo ne satis diligenter laboraverim
milites timebant ne signa sua capta essent
nos omnes verebamur ne barbari pontem captum delevissent
senex timet ut medicus se sanet
vereor ut vera dixeris
coniurati timuerunt ne comprehensi in vincula conicerentur
num times ne fures te media nocte necent?
veriti ne ab hostibus circumventi essent, milites armis deiectis se in silva celaverunt
ne interficerentur
epistula lecta, mulier timebat ut filius domum rediret
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Language: Week 20
Comparative Clauses
Comparative clauses are clauses which express likeness, agreement or the opposite,
with what is expressed in the main sentence, e.g. 'He acted as I had ordered him', or
'He behaved as though he were mad'.
In Latin, a large number of conjunctions (such as ut, quem ad modum, velut, tamquam
etc.) may be used to introduce such clauses, which frequently correspond to one of a
number of demonstratives in the main sentence (perinde, ita, sic, aliter, pariter, pro eo,
etc.).
• When the comparison made is stated as something real, the INDICATIVE is used:
perinde ac meritus est, poenas persolvit
- He was punished as he deserved (fact!)
• If the comparison is introduced as a conception of the mind, something imaginary
rather than factual, the SUBJUNCTIVE is used:
perinde ac si (ut si, quasi) meritus esset, poenas persolvit
- He was punished as though he had deserved it
(not necessarily factual)
This is very similar to half of a Conditional clause, e.g.:
ita se gessit quasi consul esset
- He behaved as though he were consul (which he wasn’t)
Correlative Clauses
CORRELATIVE SENTENCES are sentences which contain phrases and ideas like:
as large as, as many as, as often as
e.g. “The city is no longer as large as it used to be”
“I don’t have as many slaves as I did last year”
In Latin, each relative word has a corresponding demonstrative word (highlighted in
the following sentence):
The city is no longer as large as it used to be
- non iam tanta est urbs quanta erat.
The pairs of correlatives which you might meet are:
talis .... qualis - such… as
tot ... quot - as many… as
55
tam ... quam - as ... as
totiens ... quotiens - as often… as
ibi ... ubi - in the same place… as
sic ... ut - in the same way… as
inde ... unde - from the same place… as
eo ... quo - to the same place… as
ea ... qua - by the same road… as
tantus, -a, -um ... quantus, -a, -um - as great… as
inde venit unde orti sunt tot consules
- He came from the same place as so many consuls have come
• The correlative of qui is is. If both the is and the qui happen to be in the same case,
is is usually omitted - otherwise it must be specified:
Caesar quos ceperat, conservavit
- Caesar kept alive as many men as he had captured
(more simply: Caesar kept alive the men he had captured)
Caesar eos, qui se dediderant, conservavit
- Caesar kept alive the men who had given themselves up
ei quibus pecunia deest cibum emere non possunt
- Those who lack money (literally “those to whom money is lacking) cannot buy food
• Qui may also follow a part of idem to mean 'the same as':
eadem tibi dixit quae mihi
- He said the same to you as to me
idem est qui semper fuit
- He is the same as he always has been
• A superlative adjective, or a numeral (including many, few, the only) which
qualifies the antecedent in the English sentence, is placed in Latin in the relative
clause, and agrees with the relative pronoun:
Volsci civitatem, quam habebant optimam, perdiderunt
- The Volsci lost the best city they had
equites, quos paucos secum habuit, dimisit
- He sent away the few cavalry he had with him
• Sometimes the relative clause refers not to a single word as the antecedent, but to the
whole previous statement. When this is the case, the main sentence is referred to by id
quod or quae res, which introduce the relative clause:
latrones, id quod mirum fuit, nos liberaverunt
- The bandits - what was surprising - set us free
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Facienda
pro eo ac debui, feci
in fossa iacebat perinde ac si ebria esset
maturius adsumus quam si pedibus venissemus
durior erat regina quam si cor eius in lapidem mutatum esset
Cicero est mortuus; lugete, o cives Romani, quasi patrem amiseritis
clamabas tamquam fratrem tuum interfecissem
talem ancillam invenies, qualis erat domina
dux iter in vastem fecit cum copiis quibus celerrimis praeerat
qui haec dicit mentitur
tot homines, quot sententiae
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Language: Week 21
Conditionals
Part I: Indicative Conditions
If I were to forget the rules of conditionals, I would be embarrassed.
CONDITIONAL CLAUSES are clauses which express a condition under which the
statement, question, command or wish of the main clause holds good.
Conditionals consist of a protasis (the 'if-clause', the condition proper) and an
apodosis (the main clause, and consequence of the condition).
The protasis will normally contain the conjunction si (if) or nisi (unless, if...not).
There are three general types of conditionals:
1. Open Conditions
The condition is expressed so that there is no implication about its fulfilment or
probability of fulfilment: a purely logical relation is expressed:
If you steal my horse I will kill you [statement of fact]
2. Ideal Conditions
The condition concerns a matter which is still in suspense, and may be decided at
some point on the future:
If you were to steal my horse, I would kill you
[unknown as yet]
3. Unreal Conditions
The condition is one which is represented as being contrary to the known facts or is
impossible:
If you had stolen my horse, I would have killed you
[it didn’t happen!]
This week we will look at the first type of Conditional only – and a couple of
important points.
Open (Indicative) Conditions (without 'would', 'could', 'should')
The condition is expressed so that there is no implication about its fulfilment or
probability of fulfilment: a purely logical relation is expressed (“if one thing is true,
then a second thing is also true”).
The verb of the protasis will be in the appropriate tense of the INDICATIVE, and the
verb of the apodosis will usually be INDICATIVE but may also be an imperative or
iussive subjunctive:
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si verbis eius credis, erres
- If you believe his words, you are making a mistake
moriar, nisi vera loquor
- may I die if I am not speaking the truth
As usual, Latin requires greater grammatical precision than English and demands that
one of the perfect tenses be used in the apodosis if the completed action in the 'ifclause' precedes that of the main clause, however slightly. You will therefore often
find the future perfect tense in Conditional clauses if an action will have
consequences in the future:
medicus meus, si venerit, cito te sanabit
- If my doctor comes he will cure you quickly
si equum meum abstuleris, te interficiam
- If you steal my horse I will kill you
nisi omnem pecuniam mihi dederis, saxum immanem in caput tuum iacebo
- Unless you give me all the money I will hurl a huge rock at your head
Important General Points
• sive...sive... or seu...seu... are used to introduce alternate conditions:
sive vera sive falsa dicunt, nemo eis credit
- Nobody believes them, whether they tell the truth or lie
• If not (when the verb is omitted) is translated by si minus, hence:
sive restiterint sive minus, interficientur
- they will be killed whether they resist or not
Indefinite concepts
• If anybody… is expressed in conditions by si quis (nominative) or si quem
(Accusative, as appropriate)
si quis ebrius est, ne admittatur
- If anybody is drunk, let him not be admitted
si quem vidisset, bellicum cecinisset
- If he had seen anybody, he would have sounded the alarm
• If anything - si quid
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• If ever - si quando
Facienda
si diligenter laborabit, linguam Latinam facile comprehendet
ad templum non ibimus nisi puella nobiscum venient
pueri si magistro non parent, puniantur
si pater me puniverat, canes verberabam
nisi vult nobis medicis credere, eum aegre sanabimus
milites, si incolae quid hostile faciunt, villas eorum incendite; si minus, sinite eos
vitam quietam agere
tibi non nubam nisi promiseris te cotidie domi cenaturum esse
moriemini, sive vos in acie fortiter pugnaveritis sive effugeritis
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Language: Week 22
Conditionals
Part II: Subjunctive Conditionals
If I were to forget the rules of conditionals, I would be embarrassed.
Last week we met Indicative Conditions, in which two factual events are placed in
logical relation to each other (“If it’s raining I carry an umbrella”).
This week, we will look at the other two kinds of Conditional sentences, which
contain subjunctive verbs and which convey hypothetical or impossible ideas.
Ideal Conditions (with 'would', 'could', 'should')
The condition is conceded as a hypothetical supposition which may or may not be
fulfilled; the matter is still in suspense, and may be decided at some point on the
future (“If one thing were to be true – and we don’t know yet – then a second thing
would also be true”).
In Ideal Conditions the verb of both the protasis and apodosis is generally PRESENT
SUBJUNCTIVE.
si hoc faciat, erret
- If he were to do this, he would be making a mistake
hanc viam si asperam esse negem, mentiar
- If I were to deny that this road is rough, I would be lying
si equum meum auferatis, te interficiam
- If you were to steal my horse, I would kill you
Unreal Conditions (also with 'would', 'could', 'should')
This type of condition is one which is represented as being contrary to known facts, or
one whose fulfilment is impossible: a sentence like si venisses, gavisus essem carries
the implication 'If you had come I should have been glad, but you didn't come so the
case doesn't arise'.
The verb of both protasis and apodosis will be subjunctive; the imperfect subjunctive
expressing an action continuing into present time, the pluperfect subjunctive
expressing an action completed in the past.
si foret in terris, rideret Democritus (Horace)
- If Democritus were on earth (and he isn’t), he would be laughing
nisi canis latravisset, furem non comprehendissemus
- If the dog had not barked, we would not have arrested the thief
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si equum meum abstulisses, te interfecissem
- If you had stolen my horse I would have killed you
• In the apodosis of Ideal and Unreal conditions, an indicative verb is sometimes used
instead of a subjunctive:
1) If the verb of the apodosis is one of 'possibility, obligation or necessity' (posse,
debere, oportere), which are generally followed by a present infinitive.
id si fecisset, puniri eum oportuit
- If he had done this, he ought to have been punished
2) To express an action begun or intended, but hindered or prevented by the action
stated in the protasis:
pons iter paene hostibus dedit nisi unus vir fuisset (Livy)
- The bridge almost gave passage to the enemy (and would have done) but for one
man
• A final (result) subjunctive introduced by si or si forte translates to see if, in case, in
the hope that. It is commonest after conor or exspecto:
exspectavit si venirent
- He waited to see if they would come / in case they came
strenue pugnaverunt si forte vincere possent
- They fought hard to see if they could win
Facienda
si hoc faciat, erret
gaudeam si mecum domum revenias
duces victrices, si honores petant, consules sine dubio creentur
si quem dormientem inveniam, ille puniatur
si hoc fecisset, erravisset
nisi novae copiae venissent, Romani victi essent
si princeps hodie in urbe esset, quinque milia pauperum eum vituperarent
totus exercitus potuit deleri, si barbari eum persecuti essent
paucas horas exspectate si forte pluat
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Language: Week 23
Gerund and Gerundive (including Gerundive of Obligation)
1. Gerund
• The Gerund is a verbal noun, active in meaning (ad faciendum - for the doin'). It has
no nominative form (this part of the verbal noun is filled by the Infinitive), and no
plural, and is a neuter noun.
• The Infinitive is used only as a nominative and as a direct accusative object of verbs
such as volo, possum etc.; the Gerund supplies all other cases.
• Its only possible forms are (e.g. from amo - 'I love')
amandum (accusative)
amandi (genitive)
amando (dative)
amando (ablative)
The chief uses of the Gerund are:
ACCUSATIVE: Used chiefly after the preposition ad, as a substitute for a purpose
clause, especially in phrases like:
idoneus ad - suitable for
natus ad - born to
missus ad - sent to
aptus ad - suitable for
creatus ad - elected to
(all of the 'bold' words are adjectives, so they agree with the nouns they describe)
sus est ad vescendum hominibus apta
- the pig is suitable for men to eat
omnes ad discendum huc venimus
- we have all come here to learn
GENITIVE: The genitive of the Gerund follows some abstract nouns, and on some
adjectives which take a genitive, such as:
tempus - time (for)
ars - art
causa – reason
signum - signal for/to
modus – method
initium - beginning
finis - end
peritus - skilled in
cupido, studium - desire
studiosus - eager to
cupidus - desirous of
facultas, occasio, potestas opportunity, chance
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The genitive of the Gerund is especially used with the words causa and gratia to
express purpose:
equitatus noster per agros erat dissipatus praedandi vastandique causa
- Our cavalry was dispersed through the fields for plundering and pillaging
DATIVE: The dative of the Gerund is not common. It is used after a few verbs (such
as studeo - I am keen on, operam do - I give attention to/do my best to) and adjectives
(e.g. (im)par - (un)equal to)
par est disserendo (Cicero) - he is equal to arguing
legendo dabat operam - he was giving his attention to reading
ABLATIVE: The ablative of the Gerund expresses instrument or cause, or follows
one of the following prepositions: in, de, ab, ex.
fortiter pugnando hostes vicerunt
- by fighting bravely they defeated the enemy
in disputando tempus consumunt
- they spend the time in discussing
2. Gerundive
• The Gerundive is a verbal adjective, passive in meaning, even if it comes from a
deponent verb. Because it is an adjective it must always agree in case, number and
gender with the noun it governs.
• All Gerundives decline like bonus, -a, -um:
amo: amandus, -a, -um
moneo: monendus, -a, -um
duco: ducendus, -a, -um
punio: puniendus, -a, -um
capio: capiendus, -a, -um
hortor: hortandus, -a, -um
In English, a Gerund may govern a direct object: "By defeating the champion he won
the cup", "They built bridges for the purpose of crossing the river". In Latin, the
Gerund + Direct Object is avoided.
Instead Latin uses a phrase consisting of THE NOUN OR PRONOUN WHICH
WOULD HAVE BEEN THE DIRECT OBJECT (in an English sentence) and THE
GERUNDIVE AGREEING WITH THAT NOUN.
The whole Noun + Gerundive phrase is in the case that the Gerund would have been
in had there been no direct object.
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ACCUSATIVE:
ad pacem petendam venerunt (Livy)
- They have come for the purposes of seeking peace
Caesar satis ad suorum animos confirmandos fecerat
- Caesar had done enough to restore the morale of his men
GENITIVE:
agricolae semper cupidi urbis videndae sunt
- Farmers are always eager to see the city
DATIVE:
bello gerendo me praefecistis
- You put me in charge of the conduct of the war
ABLATIVE:
Brutus in liberanda patria est interfectus (Cicero)
- Brutus was killed in freeing his country
bello differendo periculum maius adimus
- By postponing the war we run a greater risk
• After some verbs, especially do (I give), curo (I see to), trado (I hand over), suscipio
(I undertake), a Noun + Gerundive phrase is used as the object to indicate that
something is caused to be done:
obsides Aeduis custodiendos tradit
- He hands the hostages over to the Aedui to be guarded (i.e. for the Aedui to guard)
urbes Romanis habitandas dedit Numa
- Numa gave the Romans cities to dwell in
Caesar pontem faciendum curavit
- Caesar caused a bridge to be made
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Facienda
ad bene vivendum breve tempus satis est longum
Cicero, qui quam primum Romam redeundi cupidus esset, occasionem navigandi
exspectabat
pauci vero ad regendum nati sunt; plurimi autem cupidi sunt administrandi
Graeci libertatem suam servaverunt Persis summa fortitudine resistendo
tres cohortes missae erant ad arcem defendendam
Vespasianus curabit plurimas vias aedificandas
mulieres ad thermas advenerunt sui lavandi causa
artem litteras scribendi nescis
pontes aedificaverunt fluminis transeundi gratia
Gerundive of Obligation
In Latin there are several ways to convey the idea that somebody must do something:
• Using the verb debeo (I ought), followed by an Infinitive:
tu debes festinare - You must hurry
• Using the phrase necesse est + Dative + Infinitive
necesse est tibi festinare - You must hurry
• Using a Gerundive of Obligation phrase:
tibi festinandum est - You must hurry
This phrase consists of a GERUNDIVE (signposted by -nd- ) which tells you what
the person involved must do. The person on whom this obligation rests goes into the
DATIVE case (Dative of the Agent)
The nominative Gerundive of a transitive verb (a verb which can take an Accusative
object) is used in agreement with the subject of the sentence to express obligation or
necessity:
amici tibi consolandi sunt
- You must console your friends
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civibus ludus aedificandus est
- The citizens must build a school
uxor mihi quaerenda est
- I must look for my wife
If the verb is intransitive (i.e. may not take a direct object) or is used intransitively
(without a direct object) the neuter nominative singular of the Gerundive is used in
an impersonal construction:
consulibus parendum erit
- The consuls will have to be obeyed
(Remember pareo takes a dative object, so it is intransitive)
occasione utendum est
- The opportunity must be used (utor takes ablative...)
mihi eundum erat
- I had to go
(eo and venio, verbs of motion, never take an object)
When the verb whose Gerundive is being used itself takes a dative object, the agent is
indicated by the ablative with a (or ab before a vowel or 'h-') in order to avoid
ambiguity:
hostibus a nobis parcendum erat
- We ought to have spared the enemy
Gerundive of Obligation in Indirect speech:
1) of a transitive verb
dixit rem imperatori perficiendam fuisse He said that the emperor ought to have finished the matter (lit. the matter ought to
have been finished...)
2) of an intransitive verb
dixit sibi scribendum esse - He said that he had to write
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Facienda
postero die altera epistula mihi scribenda erat
omnibus gentibus pax petenda, bellum vitandum est
exercitui in fines Aeduorum progrediendum est
scilicet vobis omnibus moriendum erit (cue diabolical laughter)
nonne a nobis parcendum est illis, qui nobis profuerunt?
illis, qui spectandi sunt cupidi, hic manendum est; ceteris facultas discedendi dabitur
nobis diligenter laborandum est quo celerius opus perficiamus
nuntiatum est captivos militibus interficiendos esse
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Language: Week 24
dum and dummodo, quominus and quin
1. Dum, donec, quoad, quamdiu (“while”, “as long as”)
• These words are used with any tense of the INDICATIVE when the action of the
temporal clause is coextensive with that of the main clause (the two actions happen
over the same period of time).
homines dum docent discunt (Seneca)
- Men learn while they teach.
dum Romae eram, cotidie in foro spatiabar - While I was in Rome, I used to stroll
daily in the Forum.
Cato, quoad vixit, virtutum laude crevit (Nepos) - Cato increased in the renown of
virtue as long as he lived.
• Dum (while) is used with the HISTORIC PRESENT INDICATIVE to indicate a
period of time during part of which something else happens, even when past time is
referred to.
dum absum pater mortuus est
- While I was away my father died.
allatum est praedatores, dum latius vagantur, ab hostibus interceptos esse.
- News was brought that the plunderers, while they were wandering too far, had been
cut off by the enemy.
• dum and dummodo sometimes have the metaphorical meanings so long as, provided
that and on condition that. In this case, the verb in the dum clause is a JUSSIVE
SUBJUNCTIVE. The negative of this clause is ne.
licet tibi mecum venire, dum ne quid dicas
- You may come with me, provided that you don't say anything.
oderint, dummodo metuant
- Let them hate, as long as they fear.
2. Dum, quoad, donec (meaning “until”)
If the clause introduced by dum, donec or quoad indicates nothing more than a
relation purely of TIME, the appropriate tense of the INDICATIVE is used.
Milo in curia fuit eo die, quoad senatus dimissus est
- On that day Milo was in the senate house until the Senate was dismissed.
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mihi usque curae erit quid agas, dum quid egeris sciero
- I shall always wonder how you are doing until I know how you have done
BUT if a further idea of purpose or expectation is involved, either the PRESENT or
IMPERFECT tense of the SUBJUNCTIVE is used, according to Sequence of
Tenses for Purpose Clauses.
This construction is particularly common after exspecto (“wait for”)
eum in carcerem coniecerunt dum pecuniam solveret. - They put him in prison until
he paid the money.
(They’re waiting for him to pay)
exspectate dum consul aut dictator fiat Caeso (Livy)
- Wait until Caeso becomes consul or dictator
After a negative main clause, 'until' is translated in Latin by priusquam or antequam
(both of which, as you know, can be split up into their constituent parts, e.g. ante...
quam).
noluit prius discedere quam pecuniam acciperet - He did not want to leave until he
had received the money
Facienda
dum haec in colloquio geruntur, Caesari nuntiatum est equites hostium accedere.
dum vivet, Cicero patriam suam diliget
Epaminondas hastam in corpore suo retinuit, dum nuntiatum est Boeotios vicisse.
Epaminondas hastam in corpore suo retinuit, dum nuntiatum esset vicisse Boeotios.
haec civitas fortis erat dum leges Numae vigebant
munitiones transscendere conabimur dum aliquid virium nobis superest
Rufus moratus est dum consules consuleret
dum ad aram stat, sacerdos fulmine percussus periit
dum ne quis dissentiat, Caesarem Idibus Martiis interficere conabimur
aqua altiore nuper facta, nobis exspectandum erit dum pons alter reficiatur
quominus and quin
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3. Idioms with Quin
When verbs meaning doubt (usually dubitare, dubium esse) are used in negative and
interrogative expressions they are followed by a clause introduced by quin and having
the form of an INDIRECT QUESTION (verb therefore in the appropriate tense of the
subjunctive):
non dubium erat quin nostri tandem vicissent
- There was no doubt that our side had won at last
numquam dubitavimus quin reus nocens esset
- We never doubted that the defendant was guilty
nunc mihi non est dubium quin venturae non sint legiones
- I now have no doubt that the legions will not come
BUT if dubitare is used positively it follows the normal rules of indirect questions:
dubito num ille pugnaturus sit
- I doubt (I am uncertain) whether he will fight
• You have already met quin, the relative pronoun used to replace qui...non... after a
negative or virtually negative main clause:
nemo erat quin fortitudinem Horatii laudaret
- There was no-one who did not praise Horatius' bravery
• In generic Result Clauses whose main clause is negative or virtually negative, ut non
can be (but is not always) replaced by quin:
nihil tam difficile est quin investigari possit
- Nothing is so difficult that it cannot be discovered
These clauses occur especially after negatived versions of the verbs
omitto (I leave out)
praetermitto (I let pass, omit)
intermitto (I let pass)
intercedo (I pass by):
nullum diem intermittebant quin aliquid discerent
- they let no day pass without learning something
• Note the expression non possum facere quin + subjunctive clause:
facere non possum quin cottidie litteras ad te mittam
- I cannot help sending you letters every day
facere vix potui quin te accusarem
- it was scarcely possible for me not to accuse you
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• And look at how the impersonal expression fieri potest works:
potest fieri ut erres - It may be that you are wrong
non potest fieri ut erres - It cannot be that you are wrong
non potest fieri quin erres - It cannot be that you are not wrong
(= you are bound to be wrong)
NOTE !!
A verb or sentence is said to be virtually negative if it is qualified by a word such as
vix, aegre (scarcely, with difficulty), or if it is a question which expects a negative
answer (e.g. introduced by num)
Facienda I
quis dubitet quin in virtute divitiae positae sint?
non dubitavimus quin gladiators praemia ditia adepturi essent
nemo est quin audierit quomodo Iudaeai capti sint
custodes facere aegre poterant quin legatos trucidarent
facere non possum quin carmina huius poetae laudem
4. Idioms of prevention: Quominus and Quin
The verbs veto (I forbid) and prohibeo (I prevent) take an accusative/infinitive clause:
Caesar milites pedem referre vetuit
- Caesar forbade his soldiers to retreat
But a clause is used after all other verbs of preventing, hindering and forbidding, such
as:
impedio - hinder
deterreo - deter
retineo – restrain
obsto – prevent
interdico - forbid
obsisto - get in the way, prevent
And after verbs of refraining:
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recuso - object
mihi tempero - refrain
These verbs take a clause with a subjunctive verb following the sequence rules of
Indirect Command (therefore simply present or imperfect subjunctive according to
sequence).
THEY ARE INTRODUCED AFTER A POSITIVE MAIN CLAUSE BY NE OR
QUOMINUS, AFTER A NEGATIVE (OR VIRTUALLY NEGATIVE) MAIN
CLAUSE BY QUOMINUS OR QUIN.
Examples:
naves vento tenebantur quominus in portum redirent
- The ships were prevented by the wind from returning to harbour
numquam me deterrere poteris quin te accusem
-You will never be able to prevent me from accusing you
non recusabo quominus te in vincula ducam
- I will not object to taking you to prison
vix inhiberi potuit quin saxa iaceret
- he could scarcely be prevented from throwing stones
num quis obstat quin vera dicas?
- does anyone prevent you from telling the truth?
Facienda II
plura ne dicam impedior
hiems nos impedivit quominus proficisceremur
conati sumus senem impedire quominus tantum vini potaret
tempestas haec me non deterrebit quin paucis horis navem solvam
milites, rumoribus umbrae perterriti, aegre retenti sunt quin effugerent
filius alter me numquam salutat quin a me argentums postulet
quis dubitet quin omnibus hominibus aliquando moriendum sit?
Britanni frusta conati sunt legions nostra impedire ne e nave egrederentur
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Language: Week 25
Oratio Obliqua
When reporting another person's language in Latin, by far the commonest method is
to prefix a verb of saying (most usually in the perfect tense, e.g. dixit, respondit), and
then to report, not the speaker's actual words, but the substance of what was said in
the third person - in oratio obliqua. Several alterations must then be made to what
was originally said:
1. All the principal verbs become dependent on a verb of saying (expressed or
understood)
2. Personal and demonstrative pronouns and possessive adjectives are adjusted to the
viewpoint of the person making the report.
A similar process occurs in English when speech is reported:
"I have myself led you all to this point unscathed; rest now, but tomorrow we will
attack."
becomes in reported speech:
He said that he had himself led them all to that point unscathed; they were to rest then,
but on the following day they would attack.
I. The simple sentence in Oratio Obliqua
Statements and Exclamations
Statements and denials are expressed by the accusative and infinitive construction,
taking the form and following the rules already familiar to you:
nihil doleo (I feel no pain) will become (dixit etc.) nihil se dolere
hoc faciam (I will do this) becomes (exclamavit etc.) id se facturum esse
Romulus urbem condidit becomes (narrant etc.) Romulum urbem condidisse
Commands, Prohibitions and Wishes
In oratio obliqua these will be expressed by the subjunctive with any necessary
alterations of tense and person: this effectively means that after a past tense verb all
commands and wishes for present and future time will be expressed by the imperfect
subjunctive - prohibitions and negative wishes will be reported with ne + imperfect
subjunctive.
festinate; utinam salvi sitis becomes festinarent; utinam salvi essent (o.o.)
mihi parete; nolite cunctari becomes sibi parerent; ne cunctarentur
Questions
Real questions, those to which an answer is expected, are expressed in oratio obliqua
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by the subjunctive: (present tense questions in oratio recta become imperfect
subjunctive in reported speeches; past tense questions become pluperfect
subjunctive).
Deliberative questions in oratio obliqua remain in the subjunctive, after any necessary
alteration of tense.
Rhetorical questions, those questions which do not expect an answer (and are
therefore if you like 'statements in disguise') are treated like statements in oratio
obliqua and are expressed by the accusative and infinitive:
cur ego pro hominibus ignavis sanguinem profudi? (Why have I shed my blood for
cowards?)
> cur se pro hominibus ignavis sanguinem profudisse?
II. Subordinate clauses in Oratio Obliqua
With a few exceptions, all subordinate clauses in Oratio Obliqua have their verbs
changed to the subjunctive mood. The tenses of the subjunctive depend upon that of
the verb of 'saying', according to the normal rules of sequence (i.e. after an historic
dixit, imperfect and pluperfect subjunctives are used):
da mihi libros quos emisti (direct) - Give me the books which you have bought
> eum iussit sibi libros dare quos emisset / (dixit) sibi libros daret quos emisset
agitur ut pons dissolvatur - A plan is afoot that the bridge should be broken down
> Xerxem certiorem feci id agi ut pons dissolveretur (I sent X. word that a plan was
afoot...)
hoc praestamus maxime feris quod loquimur - We excel beasts most in this respect,
that we speak
> (dixit) se hoc praestare maxime feris quod loquerentur
Special Rules for Conditional Sentences in Oratio Obliqua
In reported speech, the apodosis of a conditional sentence will, as with other types of
statement, follow the accusative / infinitive pattern, or the rules outlined above for
commands etc. The protasis (the clause with si or nisi in it) will always contain a
subjunctive verb in oratio obliqua.
Open Conditions put the verb of the protasis into either the imperfect or pluperfect
subjunctive after a past-tense verb of saying.
si peccaverit, dolebit - if he sins (lit. will have sinned), he will be sorry
> (dixit) illum, si peccavisset, doliturum esse
nisi aegrotat, semper in forum venit - he always comes to the forum unless he is ill
> (dixit) illum, nisi aegrotaret, semper in forum venire
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Ideal Conditions, both of whose clauses in direct speech are present subjunctive,
again presents no real difficulty in oratio obliqua. After a past tense verb of saying,
the apodosis will become a future infinitive (always!) and the protasis will contain a
verb in the imperfect subjunctive:
si peccet, doleat - if he were to sin (and the matter is undecided), he would be sorry
> (dixit) illum, si peccaret, doliturum esse
gaudeam, si quis mecum veniat - I should be glad if someone were to come with me
> (dixit) se, si secum veniret, gavisurum esse
Unreal Conditions: An imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive in the protasis remains
unaltered. In the apodosis an imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive becomes an
infinitive made up of future participle + fuisse
si peccaret, doleret - if he were sinning he would be sorry (now)
> (dixit) illum, si peccaret, doliturum fuisse
si peccavisset, doluisset – if he had sinned, he would have been sorry
> (dixit) illum, si peccavisset, doliturum fuisse
Facienda
Translate the following prose passage into English. It contains a large amount of
Oratio Obliqua, but shouldn’t be too difficult…
dum Galli bellum parant, Caesar contionem apud milites habuit. dixit eos neque armis
neque cibo carere; cur igitur vererentur barbaris paucis ignavisque obviam ire? nam si
audacter ex eo loco in densam silvam contendissent, eos intra triduum seditionem
facile oppressuros esse.
his autem dictis, centurio quidam, Longinus nomine, Caesarem hortatus est ne ex
hibernis discederet. respondit se vero illum in ipsa infera secuturum fuisse, si ille ita
imperavisset; sed hostes ad pugnam ne impelleret, quod praesertim cuperent. se enim
prius in illam miseram patriam quam Caesarem venisse; sibi igitur ab illo parendum
esse. bello differendo se multo celerius victuros esse.
Caesar tamen, temeritati eius valde iratus, Longinum statim interficiendum curavit.
Vocabulary
contio (-ionis) f. - an address (speech)
triduum - a three day period
infera (-orum) n.pl. - the Underworld
temeritas (-atis) f.- boldness
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Language: Week 26
Past Paper Practice
Specimen Paper
This week’s Translation exercise is a specimen paper released by OCR, which is
intended to be of a comparable standard to the translation passage which you will face
in the AS examination. The AS Translation paper will last for one hour; try to
complete this exercise as though under examination conditions, writing your
translation on alternate lines. Do not look anything up at this stage.
Once you have completed the translation, you may go through it again, looking up
any words or phrases of which you are unsure. Write any corrections you make in a
different colour, but do not cross out your original ideas.
Make sure that you learn any vocabulary which you needed to look up.
Translate the following passage into English.Write your translation on alternate lines.
King Philippus attacks the town of Abydos and refuses entreaties for peace; when the
townsfolk face defeat, they decide that death is preferable to surrender. The surviving
men first kill their wives and children and then themselves.
At first the citizens of Abydos, placing artillery along the walls, prevented the
attackers from approaching. Then part of the wall was breached and tunnels were
driven as far as the inner defences.
Abydeni legatos ad regem miserunt. volebant enim ex urbe discedere.
cum Philippus respondisset nullam pacem fore, Abydeni tam irati erant
ut iuberent matronas, pueros virginesque, infantes etiam in gymnasium
includi. ibi viri delecti sunt, qui, ubi aciem suam caesam esse vidissent,
statim coniuges liberosque interficerent, aurum argentumque in mare
deicerent, omnia aedificia incenderent. tum milites fortiter pugnaverunt,
sed principes, cum paucos milites proelio superesse viderent, luce prima
sacerdotes ad urbem Philippo dedendam miserunt. qui nullos homines
cepit: omnes enim Abydeni discurrerunt ut coniuges liberosque necarent;
seque ipsi interficere coeperunt. obstupefactus eo furore rex suppressit
impetum militum et Abydenis triduum ad moriendum dedit. quo spatio
tanta facinora in se victi ediderunt, ut nemo vivus in potestatem regis
venerit.
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Livy XXXI.17-18 (adapted)
Abydeni, -orum m.pl. - the citizens of Abydos
deligo, deligere, delegi, delectum - I choose
supersum, superesse, superfui - I survive
dedo, dedere, dedidi, deditum - I surrender
triduum, -i n. - three days
spatium, -i n. - period of time
facinus, -oris n. - crime
edo, edere, edidi, editum - I commit
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Language: Week 27
Unseen Translation
Past Paper Practice
AS Latin Translation. June 2001
This week’s Translation exercise is a past paper which was set by OCR as the AS
Unprepared Translation module in June 2001.
The AS Translation paper will last for one hour; try to complete this exercise as
though under examination conditions, writing your translation on alternate lines. Do
not look anything up at this stage.
Once you have completed the translation, you may go through it again, looking up
any words or phrases of which you are unsure. Write any corrections you make in a
different colour, but do not cross out your original ideas.
Make sure that you learn any vocabulary which you needed to look up.
Translate the following passage into English.
Write your translation on alternate lines.
Octavian has fought a civil war against Antonius, who has enjoyed the support of
Egypt and its queen, Cleopatra. After a visit to Brundisium, Octavian follows the
defeated Antonius to Egypt, where he and Cleopatra commit suicide. Octavian also
puts two boys to death.
When Amtonius had divorced his wife Octavia and began living in Egypt with
Cleopatra, Octavian had Antonius’ will opened and read in public: this named his
children by Cleopatra as his heirs. Antonius was then declared a public enemy.
nec multo post Octavianus navali proelio prope Actium Antonium vicit. cum
autem audivisset milites, quos, confecta victoria, Brundisium praemiserat,
praemia poscere, ad Italiam redire constituit. postea tamen maxima orta
tempestate, navis in qua vehebatur paene deleta est. septem et viginti dies
Brundisii moratus, donec omnia quae milites volebant darentur, Aegyptum
petivit. deinde obsessam Alexandriam, quo Antonius cum Cleopatra fugerat,
brevi tempore cepit. et Antonium quidem condiciones pacis petentem ad
mortem adegit viditque mortuum. ad Cleopatram autem, quae periisse morsu
aspidis putabatur, servos misit qui venenum exsurgerent, quod eam Romam
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ducere vivam magnopere cupiebat. quod honorem ambobus dare voluit,
tumulum ab ipsis inceptum perfici iussit eosque una sepilivit. Antonium
iuvenem, Antonii filium, ab ara ad quam fugerat abreptum interfecit. eodem
modo Caesarionem, filium Cleopatrae Caesarisque, effugere conantem occidit.
reliquis Antonii reginaeque liberis pepercit.
Suetonius, Divus Augustus XVII (adapted)
quo - to where
condiciones, condicionum f.pl. - terms
adigo, adigere, adegi, adactus - I drive, hound
morsus, morsus m. - bite
aspis, aspidis f. - asp (a type of snake)
venenum, -i n. - poison, venom
exsugo, exsugere, exsuxi, exsuctus - I suck out
ambo, ambae, ambo - both
tumulus, -i m. - tomb
sepelio, sepelire, sepelivi, sepultus - I bury
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