COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF VERTEBRATES
INTRODUCTION
SYLLABUS
GRADING AND REQUIREMENTS
LECTURE NOTES
What this course is about
Not every human being needs to be an biologist, but at least everyone should have an understanding of
oneself, including one’s own body. Unfortunately, this is not the case. An understanding of our body parts
(structures) and the functions they perform should be THE most basic knowledge everyone should possess.
For students majored in life sciences, we, as a member in the subphylum Vertebrata (or more appropriately,
Craniata), should also understand the origin and evolution of one’s own morphology, and know at least how
to describe one’s own body.
For the general public, the essence of physical or biological sciences means 'experiments'. And
experiments means dirty hands, poisonous chemicals, and washing test tubes. But if you go to a
bioinformatics lab, all you see are computers and books; many labs in the physics or math departments are
doing simulations. In a sense, the people in these labs are doing experiments, for they try all different things
in their head, or on the computer. Still, theirs are far from our general perceptions of the 'proper' ways of
doing experiments.
In biological sciences, or if you prefer, life sciences, experiments means manipulations. And you need to
have control groups and experimental groups for your researches. People compare results in control and
experimental groups, and then try to decide whether the observed differences among groups can be
explained by the differences of conditions they manipulated. Embryology, physiology, cell biology, and
molecular biology are generally considered experimental biology.
On the other hand, many branches of biology are not considered experimental in nature. These include
anatomy, systematics, behavior, and, sometimes, ecology. Some people doesn't even think these branches are
real science, because the persons engaged in anatomical or systematic studies do not do experiments – all they
do are comparing things. But think for a moment, how do you experiment on fossils? What else can you do
except looking at dead animals when you are describing new species?
So comparison is a legitimate way of doing science. Results of comparative biology form the basis for all
branches in experimental biology. Comparative biologists formulate hypotheses based on their studies on
structures, species, behavior, and these hypotheses are tested by cell biologists, molecular biologists,
physiologists, and embryologists. For example, comparison of skull architectures of vertebrate animals leads
to our understanding of the muscular control of the feeding mechanisms, and the phylogenetic relationships
among animals which, in turn, are tested by molecular phylogenetists using DNA sequences of some genes.
Vertebrate morphology and anatomy are generally treated as a dull subject – all you have to do is to
memorize terms. In this course, we will try to make it interesting. Animals are alive because they eat, they
breath, they move, they mate. If we can always keep in mind that body forms and shapes are meant to
perform functions, it would be much easier to relate functions with morphology. Vertebrates are diverse, their
structures and the functions are complex. The best way to organize this morphological and functional
diversity is to use the phylogenetic relationships as a foundation.
In this course, we will use phylogeny of the vertebrates as a template, to understand how vertebrate
animals adapt to their environments, how organ systems change their morphology and functions in the
course of evolution.
This course is suitable for undergraduate students who are interested in the anatomy, physiology,
systematics, and paleontology of vertebrate animals. Students taking this course must have at least one-year
introductory biology background.
The lecture is accompanied by a laboratory course. Students receive a single grade for the whole course.
Students will examine specimens of vertebrate animals (including slides, skeletons, specimens) to gain an
understanding of the diversity of vertebrates and their structures. Students will also be given prepared
specimens for dissection, in order to undertand the all the organ systems of vertebrates.
When you look at a structure in an animal, you should automatically be asking yourself these questions:
WHAT DOES IT LOOK LIKE?
WHAT DOES IT DO?
HOW DOES IT DO IT?
WHY DOING IT?
And you also need to start relating these structures to some of your more familiar animals, and to
compare the similarities and differences among them.
comparative methods in biological sciences
For the general public, physical or biological sciences mean 'experiments'. And experiments means
dirty hands, spilled chemicals, washing flasks. But if you go to a bioinformatics lab, all you see are
computers and books; many labs in the physics or math departments are doing simulations. In a sense, the
people in these labs are doing experiments, for they try all different things in their head, or on the
computer. Still, theirs are far from our general perceptions of the 'proper' ways of doing experiments.
In biological sciences, or if you prefer, life sciences, experiments means manipulations. And you
need to have control groups, experimental groups for study. People compare results in control and
experimental groups, and then try to decide whether the observed differences among groups can be
explained by the differences of conditions they manipulated. Embryology, physiology, cell biology, and
molecular biology are generally considered experimental biology.
On the other hand, many branches of biology are not considered experimental in nature. These
include anatomy, systematics, behavior, and, sometimes, ecology, and some people even think these
branches are not real science, because the persons engaged in anatomical, systematic studies do not do
experiments – all they do are comparing things. But think for a moment, how do you experiment on
fossils? What else can you do except looking at dead animals when you are describing new species?
So comparison is a legitimate way of doing science. And results of comparative biology form the
basis for all branches in experimental biology. Comparative biologists formulate hypotheses based on
their studies on structures, species, behavior, and these hypotheses are tested by cell biologists, molecular
biologists, physiologists, and embryologists.
Comparative anatomy provides many evidences for the theory of evolution, it is also the major
sources of information for formulating phylogenetic hypotheses.
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COURSE SYLLABUS
Time:
LECTURE: Thursdays: 10-12, 13-14
LABORATORY: Thursdays: 14-17
Textbooks:
lecture: Kardong, K. 2006 Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution 4/e
lab: Kardong, K. 2002 Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy:A Lab. Dissection Guide 3e
Dates and time of the exams are:
lecture: October 19, November 30, January 11 (all on Thursdays, 9-11 AM)
laboratory: November 02, January 04 (all on Thursdays, 9-11 AM)
Lecture Schedule
Mo
9
9
9
10
10
10
10
11
11
11
11
11
12
12
12
12
01
01
Day
14
21
28
05
12
19
26
02
09
16
23
30
07
14
21
28
04
11
Topic
chapters
organization
Diversity and Phylogeny
Diversity and Phylogeny
Biological Design
Life History
The integument
Cranial and post-cranial skeletons
Cranial and post-cranial skeletons
Cranial and post-cranial skeletons
Muscles
Respiratory System
Circulatory System
Digestive System
Urogenital System
Endocrine System
Nervous System
Senseory organs
Final Exam
1, 2, 3
1, 2, 3
4
5
6
7, 8, 9
7, 8, 9
7, 8, 9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
exam (chapters)
exam 1 (1-5)
exam 2 (1-11)
exam 3 (1-17)
Laboratory Schedule
Mo
9
9
9
10
10
10
10
11
11
11
11
11
12
12
12
12
01
Day
14
21
28
05
12
19
26
02
09
16
23
30
07
14
21
28
04
Topic
organization
Survey of the Vertebrates
protochordates, Agnathans
integuments and skeleton
integuments and skeleton
integuments and skeleton
muscular system, external anatomy
exam 1
muscular system, external anatomy
digestive system
circulatory and respiratory systems
circulatory and respiratory systems
urogenital system
nervous system
nervous system
review
exam 2
chapters
exam (chapters)
1
2, 3
3, 4, 5
3, 4, 5
3, 4, 5
6, 7
(wks 1-6)(chap 1-5)
6
7
8
8
9
10
10
(wks 8-15) (chap 6-10)
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Grading and Requirements
Grading:
lecture: 60% of total grade; 3 exams (100 pts each):
laboratory: 30% of total grade; 2 exams (100 pts each)
attendance and performance:10% of total grades (each absence will cost 2% of total grade)
Exemptions:
Students who received an average of 85% of the points in the first two lecture exams can be exempted
from taking the final exam. In such cases, the final grade will be based on the average of the first two lecture
exams plus laboratory part of the grades.
Materials needed for the laboratory
dissectiing instruments
one pair of large scissors
one pair of small scissors
#4 knife handle (with blades)
#5 knife handle (with blades)
large forceps (toothed)
small forceps (toothed or pointed)
probes or dissecting needles (blunt tip is preferred)
lab garment
latex examining gloves
General Instructions and Advices for the Comparative Anatomy Laboratory
1. Read the manual before you dissect.
2. Follow instruction on the manual to make a cut, expose an organ, isolate a blood vessel, etc. Never
use only the figures as a guide.
3. Do not pull out, cut, discard any of the membranes, vessels, muscles, or any organs. These can all be
used as reference points and landmarks for future dissections.
4. Keep dissection neat and clean. It helps if you can imagine that you are doing operation procedures
on the animal, and it will revive after your operation.
5. Always ready to make comparisons: e.g., compare the animals you are dissecting with yourself.
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