STUDY GUIDE
Unit 1: Evolution and the Nature of Science
SG 1 – Themes of biology (6-9)
A. Describe the properties that all living things have in common. Form an opinion
about this classification of life. Do you thing ALL things can fall into the
categories living OR nonliving? Why or why not?
B. Describe what a “theme” is. Summarize each theme listed and any other
important aspects of it. If it will help you, draw a picture or diagram to
represent each theme.
SG 2 – Scientific processes (14-20)
A. Define an observation and describe several ways in which observation may be
collected.
B. Distinguish among observation, hypothesis, and prediction. Give an example of
each.
C. Use the example of snowmelting and pH to describe what an experiment is.
What is special about a controlled experiment? Why is this necessary? control
group
D. Distinguish between an independent and a dependent variable. Identify the
variables in Harte’s experiment.
E. Relate the conclusion of an experiment to the hypothesis. What conclusions did
Harte reach?
F. Distinguish between a hypothesis and a theory, including how a theory is
constructed.
SG 3 – Theory of evolution by natural selection (276-280) [8a, 8b]
A. Describe Lamarck’s evolution hypothesis. Is his hypothesis currently
supported? Explain.
B. Describe the observations Darwin made on his voyage on the Beagle.
C. Describe the following influences on Darwin: Wallace, Lyell, Malthus.
D. Distinguish among the terms natural selection, evolution, and adaptation.
E. Summarize the four major points of Darwin’s theory of evolution.
SG 4 – Evidence of evolution (283-287) [8e, 8f]
A. What did Darwin observe about fossils and what did he predict? Was his
prediction correct?
B. Describe each point agreed upon by scientists concerning the history of life.
How do you think scientists know these points? According to our discussion
about science, could these points ever by modified or falsified? Explain.
C. Explain what a fossil is and how they are formed.
D. Distinguish between vestigial and homologous structures. Draw a picture of the
homologous structures shown on pg. 286.
E. Describe how proteins and DNA molecules are used to determine evolutionary
relationships. What are limitations of this technique?
SG 5 – Evidence of Evolution (281-282) and Examples of Evolution (288-292) [8d]
A. Use the term reproductive isolation to describe what happens when groups of
the same species live in different locations. What could this ultimately result
in? Give a specific example.
B. Distinguish between gradualism and punctuated equilibrium. Draw a diagram
to represent this.
C. Use the example of tuberculosis to explain how natural selection causes
evolution.
D. Relate divergence to speciation. Use Darwin’s finches to describe this
relationship.
E. How is a subspecies formed? How do these become separate species and how
are these new species maintained?
Unit 2: Chemistry of Life
SG 1 - The Nature of Matter (28-30)
A. Describe the basic structure of an atom. Draw a labeled model of an atom.
Nucleus proton neutron electron
B. Distinguish among an atom, element, compound and a molecule
C. Distinguish among the mechanism and relative strength of covalent bonds,
ionic bonds, and hydrogen bonds
SG 2 - Water and Solutions (31-33)
A. Relate the storage of energy to water. What significance does this relationship
have to organisms?
B. Distinguish between cohesion and adhesion, including the significance these
properties have to organisms.
C. Relate polarity to water. What significance does this relationship have to
organisms?
D. Distinguish between acids and bases and explain what a pH scale measures.
What is the pH of water? Is it an acid, base, both, or neither?
SG 3 – Chemistry of Cells (34-37) [1h]
A. Which elements are typically found in organic compounds? Describe another
usage of the word “organic.” Distinguish between the 2 definitions.
B. Distinguish between carbohydrates and monosaccharides.
C. Describe the structure and function of the carbohydrates mentioned.
D. Describe the structure of lipids. Distinguish between saturated and unsaturated
fats.
E. Describe the function of various lipids.
F. Describe the structure and function of proteins and nucleic acids.
G. Look through your place and find 10 different types of food. For each,
hypothesize whether it contains carbohydrates, proteins, and/or lipids. Explain
your reasoning for each (which may include looking at the label).
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STUDY GUIDE
SG 4 – Cycling of Materials in Ecosystems (350-354) [6d]
A. Explain how materials are recycled through biochemical cycles.
B. Draw a labeled diagram of the water cycle.
C. Draw a labeled diagram of the carbon cycle
D. Draw a labeled diagram of the nitrogen cycle.
E. Describe the significance of nitrogen fixation.
Unit 3: Cell organization and division
SG 1 - Looking at cells (50-54) and cell features (55)
A. Distinguish among compound light, electron, and scanning tunneling
microscopes. Include the magnitude and limitations of each.
B. Describe the 3 components of the cell theory.
C. Explain why small cells function more efficiently than large cells. Surface areavolume ratio
SG 2 – Cell features (56-59), Bacteria (442,446) and cell organelles (62-64,66) [1c,
1e, 1j]
A. Describe the common features of all cells
B. Draw a labeled diagram of a prokaryotic cell.
C. Distinguish between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells.
Nucleus
genetic material
D. Describe the structure and function of the cytoskeleton.
E. Make a chart listing each of the following organelles and draw a picture of
each: nucleus, ribosome, rough endoplasmic reticulum, smooth endoplasmic
reticulum. golgi apparatus, lysosome, vacuole. cell wall
We will add to this chart in class
F. Draw a labeled diagram of a typical plant and animal cell. List the differences
between them.
SG 3 – Chromosomes (118-119) and The Cell Cycle (125-127)
A. Explain why a cell divides.
B. Compare and contract prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell division. Binary fission
C. Draw a labeled picture to distinguish among a chromosome, chromatids, and a
centromere.
D. What happens during each of the following events in the cell cycle: G1 phase, S
phase, G2 phase, M phase.
E. Explain how the cell cycle is controlled.
F. Describe what cancer is and relate it to cell cycle control.
G. Describe the environmental and genetic causes of cancer.
SG 5 - Mitosis and Cytokinesis (128-132)
A. Describe the structure, function, and location of spindles.
B. Distinguish between mitosis and cytokinesis.
C. Mark a chart with each mitotic phase, a picture to present it, and a brief
description of the events that happen.
Unit 4: Cell membranes
SG 1 - Cell features (60-61) [1a]
A. Distinguish between structure and function of cell membranes and cell walls.
B. Why is the cell membrane described as a “mosaic” and “semi-permeable”?
Draw a diagram of the cell membrane to represent this.
SG 2 - Passive Transport (74-87) [1a]
A. Use an example to describe passive transport
B. Relate concentration gradiant and equilibrium to passive transport
C. Distinguish between diffusion and osmosis
D. Distinguish among isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic solutions.
SG 3 - Passive Transport (78-80) and Active Transport (86) [1a]
A. Explain how ions, polar and large molecules pass through the cell membrane.
ion channel carrier proteins facilitated diffusion
B. Relate electrical charge to the passage of ions across a membrane.
C. Distinguish among passive and active transport. Use the sodium-potassium
pump example to describe active transport.
D. Distinguish between endocytosis and exocytosis.
E. Describe the function of receptor proteins.
Unit 5: Cellular Energetics
SG 1 - Energy Flow in Ecosystems (345-349) [6e. 6f]
A. Describe the significance of primary productivity.
B. Distinguish between producers and consumers.
C. Define a trophic level and describe the different types of organisms found at
each level. Herbivore carnivore omnivore detritovore decomposer
D. Distinguish between a food chain and a food web. Draw a diagram of each.
E. What does an energy pyramid represent? Which organisms are at the bottom,
why?
F. Explain what happens to the energy acquired when a deer eats grass. About
how much energy is actually stored in the deer’s molecules?
SG 2 - Energy and Chemical Reactions (38-39)
A. Define energy. How is this different from matter?
B. Relate the role of energy to chemical reactions.
C. Describe the difference between “absorbing” and “releasing” energy. Use
specific examples and draw a diagram of each kind of reaction.
D. Define activation energy. Circle this on your diagrams from “C.” Why is this
concept important to biological systems?
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STUDY GUIDE
SG 3 – Energy and Chemical Reactions (40-42) [1b]
A. Explain what an enzyme is and the role it plays in chemical reactions. catalyst
activation energy protein
B. What would be the consequence if an organism did not have enzymes?
C. Draw a diagram to represent how an enzyme catalyzes a substrate in its active
site
D. What factors can influence the activity of enzymes?
SG 4 - Energy and Living Things (94-96)
A. Distinguish between autotrophs and heterotrophs including the various ways
they make/obtain organic compounds and energy.
B. Describe what happens to the energy as starch is broken down to glucose. Why
is ATP described as “currency.”
C. Describe the function of ATP
D. Draw a picture of ADP and ATP.
E. How does a biological system release the energy stored in ATP?
Unit 6: Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis
SG 1 – Cell Organelles (65-66) [1f, 1g]
A. Describe the structure and function of mitochondria and draw a labeled diagram
of one. Inner membrane outermembrane mitochondrial DNA
B. Describe the structure and function of a chloroplast and draw a labeled diagram
of one. (look at pg. 99) outermembrane innermembrane thylakoid
SG 2 – Photosynthesis (97-98) [1f]
A. Summarize the 3 stages of photosynthesis. Which organisms does
photosynthesis occur in?
B. Write the photosynthesis equation. Explain this equation in words.
C. What is the location and role of chlorophyll? Use this to explain why most
plants appear green.
D. Explain how chlorophyll electrons become “excited” and what happens to these
excited electrons.
SG 3 – Photosynthesis (99-103) [1f]
A. List the light dependent reaction’s (electron transport chain) (1) purpose (2)
inputs (3) outputs (4) location
B. List the Calvin Cycle’s (1) purpose (2) inputs (3) outputs (4) location
C. What factors affect the rate of photosynthesis?
SG 4 – Cellular Respiration (104-105) [1g]
A. Relate the oxygen you breathe in to cellular energy. aerobic respiration
anaerobic respiration
B. Write the cellular respiration equation. Explain this equation in words.
Think back to “2B”. How are the 2 equations related?
C. Summarize the 2 stages of cellular respiration. What organisms does this occur
in?
D. List glycolysis’ (1) purpose (2) inputs (3) outputs (4) location
E. List the kreb cycle’s (1) purpose (2) inputs (3) outputs (4) location
F. List the electron transport chain (1) purpose (2) inputs (3) outputs (4) location
SG 5 – Cellular Respiration (106-110) [1g]
A. What happens in cells when there is not enough oxygen for aerobic respiration?
What is the purpose of this? Fermentation NAD+ ATP
B. Distinguish between the products of alcoholic fermentation and lactic acid
fermentation. What type of organisms does each occur in?
C. Relate the number of ATP produced with the different stages of cellular
respiration.
Unit 7: DNA to Protein
SG 1 – Identifying the Genetic Material (190-193, 196)
A. What was Griffith trying to do in 1928?
B. Describe the conclusions of each experiment: Griffith, Avery, Hershey-Chase.
C. What are Watson and Crick famous for? What evidence did they use?
D. Chargaff found that in any organism the % of ______ is equivalent to the % of
_________, while the % of______ is equivalent to the % of ________. Why is
this true?
SG 2 – The Structure of DNA (194-197) [5a]
A. Describe the basic structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). What type of
macromolecule is DNA? What is its monomer?
B. Copy the picture of DNA on pg. 194 and label it with phosphate group,
deoxyribose sugar, nitrogen base, and hydrogen bond
C. What is meant by “complementary base pairs.”
SG 3 - The Replication of DNA (198-200) [5b]
A. Summarize what happens during DNA replication Which enzymes are
involved? (we will go into detail about this process in class)
B. Explain how DNA is proofread during replication.
C. Distinguish between the origin of replication in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
SG 4 - From Genes to Proteins (208-211) [5b,
A. Compare and contrast RNA with DNA. What are the functions of the 3 types of
RNA?
B. Summarize what happens during transcription. (we will go into detail about this
process in class).
C. Copy the sequence of mRNA on the bottom of page 302. Circle the codons.
What is meant by a “genetic code”?
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STUDY GUIDE
SG 5 – From Genes to Proteins (212-214) and Gene Regulation and Structure (124,
218-220) [5a, 5c, 5e, 1d]
A. Summarize what happens during translation (we will go into detail about this
process in class).
B. Distinguish among point mutations, frameshift mutations, and chromosomal
mutations.
C. Why are mutations significant? Variation genetic disorders
Unit 8: Biotechnology
SG 1 – Viruses (434-438) [10d]
A. Describe the basic characteristics of viruses. Would biologists classify them as
alive or not? What do you you think, why?
B. Describe the structure and categorize of viruses. Draw a diagram of each type.
capsid bacteriophage
C. Distinguish between the lytic and the lysogenic cycle. provirus
D. How is the structure of HIV different from many other viruses?
SG 2 – Bacteria (443, 449-450) [10d]
A. Describe the three basic shapes of bacteria.
B. Describe the significance of each of the following bacterial structures: cell
walls, endospores, pilli.
antiobiotics conjugation
C. What did Fleming observe in 1928 and what did he conclude?
D. What is meant by being antibiotic resistant? How does this arise in bacteria?
E. Describe several important uses of bacteria.
SG 3 – Genetic Engineering (228-230) [5d, 5e
A. Relate genetic engineering to recombinant DNA.
B. Interrelate restriction enzymes, vectors, and plasmids. Where can each be
found?
C. Summarize the 4 common steps of genetic engineering.
D. Use the example of the insulin gene to describe how DNA is cut and
recombinant DNA is made. Sticky ends
E. How do antibiotics such as tetracycline help identify cells that have taken up
the gene of interest?
SG 4 – Genetic Engineering (228-230)
A. What is the purpose of Southern blotting?
B. Summarize the steps in producing a Southern blot
C. What can be done with the identified colonies?
SG 5 – Human Applications of Genetic Engineering (233-234, 182) [5c]
A. Describe the geography of the human genome of the purpose of the Human
Genome Project.
B. Describe how scientists use bacteria to produce genetically modified medicine.
C. Describe how scientists use viruses to insert the normal cf gene. What are
limitations with this technology?
SG 6 - Human Applications of Genetic Engineering (236-237, 182, 220)
A. Summarize the gene sequencing and its purpose.
B. Summarize the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and its purpose.
C. Why are identical twins a problem when creating DNA fingerpints?
D. Define a DNA fingerprint and summarize how they are produced.
E. Relate RFLPs to a DNA fingerprint
SG 7 - Genetic Engineering in Agriculture (238-242)
A. Describe ways in which farmers are using genetic engineering to improve or
modify farm animals. Transgenic animals
B. Explain how Ian Wilmut successfully cloned the first mammal. How many
sheeps were used total and which one is Dolly identical to?
C. Describe the successes and problems with animal cloning.
Unit 9: Meiosis and Heredity
SG 1 – Chromosomes (120-122) and Meiosis (144-145) [2a, 2d]
A. Define and draw a picture of homologous chromosomes. How is this different
from sister chromatids (refer to Study Guide 2H)
B. Distinguish between diploid and haploid.
C. Relate zygote to haploid and diploid.
D. Relate fertilization to zygote and gamete
E. Make a chart with each phase of meiosis and a picture of it. We will add to this
chart in class.
SG 2 – Sexual Reproduction (146-153) [2b, 2c]
A. Relate independent assortment to meiosis.
B. Explain the processes of crossing over and random fertilization. When do these
occur?
C. Describe the importance of genetic variation
D. Distinguish between spermatogenesis and oogenesis. Illustrate these processes
with diagrams.
SG 3 – The Origin of Genetics (162-165) and Mendel’s Theory (166-169) [3b]
A. What did Mendel already know about plant reproduction? How did Mendel
produce seeds that had 2 different plants as parents? Fertilization true-breeding
Cross-pollination
B. Mendel crossed a plant with round peas and a plant with wrinkled peas. This
produced all round pea offspring. In this example, what is the P generation, the
F1 generation, the trait, and the hybrid?
C. Summarize Mendel’s 2 conclusions. What do scientists now call Mendel’s
“chemical factors.”
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STUDY GUIDE
D. What happened when Mendel crossed F1 plants with itself? How did he explain
this result? F2 generation segregation gametes
E. Distinguish between homozygous and heterozygous.
F. Distinguish between genotype and phenotype.
G. What did Mendel’s experiment with one trait show? What did it fail to show?
H. Explain the principle of independent assortment.
SG 4 – Chromosomes (122-124) and Studying Heredity (170-174) [2e, 2f]
A. What is a karyotype? Why is it useful?
B. Distinguish autosomes from sex chromosomes. Which sex chromosome(s) do
males have? Females?
C. Explain the concept nondisjunction. Use Down syndrome to demonstrate
D. If you flip a coin 4 times, what is the probability it will land heads everytime?
Explain how to solve this
E. What is a punnett square used for? Copy the punnett square on pg. 268.
SG 5 – Studying Heredity (175-176) [2g, 3a, 3c]
A. Explain how colorblindness is inherited. What is the genotype for a colorblind
male? Colorblind female?
B. What is a pedigree chart? Why is it useful?
Genetic problems
1. In pea plants, round seeds (S) are dominant to wrinkled seeds (s). In a genetic
cross of two plants that are heterozygous for the seed shape trait, what fraction of
the offspring should have round seeds? Use a punnett square to show this.
2. In humans, a dimple in the chin is a dominant trait. A man who does not have a
chin dimple marries a women with a chin dimple. They produce 8 children, all
having the chin dimple.
(A). Write the POSSIBLE genotypes of the man and woman
(B). Can you be certain of the woman’s genotype? Why or why not? Which
genotype is more likely, why?
SG 6 - Complex Patterns of Heredity (177-181)
A. Summarize the following patterns of inheritance and provide an example of
each: incomplete dominance codominance multiple alleles polygenic traits
B. Write the all the possible genotypes for type A, B, AB, and O blood. Is this an
example of Polygenic inheritance, incomplete dominance, or codominance?
Explain.
C. Explain how the sickle cell allele leads to sickle cell disease. What benefit does
this allele have?
Genetic problems
3. A genetic cross occurs between two pea plants heterozygous for seed color and
pea shape. Yellow seeds are dominant to green. Round seeds are dominant to
wrinkled seeds.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
Write the genotypes of each parent
Write the possible genotypes of each parent’s gametes
Complete the punnett square
Write the ratio of each PHENOTYPE
4. 4 o’ clock flowers can either be red (RR), white (WW), or pink (RW). A white 4
o’ clock flower parent is bred with a pink 4 o’ clock flower parent. What type of
inheritance is being demonstrated? What will be the probable genotype and
phenotype frequencies of the offspring? Use a punnett square to show this.
Unit 10: Populations and Communities
SG 1 - How Populations Grow (320-325) and Effects on Ecosystems (394-395) [6c]
A. Define a population and describe the 3 factors that can affect population size.
B. Distinguish among birth rate and death rate, immigration, Use these concepts to
explain how population size can fluctuate.
C. Distinguish between exponential growth and logistic growth. Draw graphs of
each.
D. Relate carrying capacity to logistic growth. Label this on your logistic graph.
E. Distinguish between density-dependent and density independent factors.
F. Distinguish between and give examples of r-strategists and k-strategists.
G. Describe what is happening to the world’s population. What factors account for
these fluctuations?
SG 2 – How Populations Evolve (326-332) [7c, 7e, 8c]
A. Distinguish between gene and allele. (review from earlier units)
B. Distinguish between gene pool and relative frequency. How is evolution related
to relative frequencies?
C. Describe the Hardy-Weinberg principle and when the principle holds true.
What exactly does the principle predict?
D. Relate mutations to variation and the Hardy-Weinberg principle.
E. Distinguish among gene flow , nonrandom mating, and genetic drift and
explain how it can lead to genetic change.
SG 3 – How Populations Evolve (329-332, 177,179) [7a, 7b]
A. Explain how natural selection on single gene traits can lead to evolution. Use
an example.
B. Does natural selection act on phenotypes or genotypes? Explain.
C. Use an example to explain how some lethal genetic conditions can not be
eliminated by natural selection.
D. Distinguish between single gene and polygenic inheritance. Normal
distribution
E. Describe how natural selection can shape polygenic traits. Directional selection
stabilizing selection
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STUDY GUIDE
SG 4 - What is an Ecosystem? (340-344) [6a, 6b]
A. Distinguish between biotic and abiotic factors. Relate these terms to the term
ecosystem
B. Distinguish among population, community, and ecosystem
C. Describe what Biodiversity is and suggest why biodiversity is important in an
ecosystem.
D. Distinguish between primary and secondary succession. Relate a pioneer
species to these terms.
E. Explain what would change an ecosystem’s biodiversity extinction
endangered species habitat fragmentation invasive species
SG 5 - How Organisms Interact in Communities (362-364) and How Competition
Shapes Communities (365-370)
A. Use an example to describe coevolution
B. Distinguish among predation and parasitism.
C. Describe the different type of symbiotic relationships.
SG 6 - Effects on Ecosystems (390-393)
A. Use DDT to describe how biological magnification works. What organisms is
this most dangerous for?
B. Describe the consequences and benefits of species extinction. Describe
situations which could lead to species extinction.
C. Describe the consequences of depleted topsoil and groundwater.
Unit 11: Immune System
SG 1 – Nonspecific Defense (924-926) [10a]
A. Define a pathogen and list several examples.
B. Describe your body’s first line of defense. lysozyme
C. Summarize the inflammatory response. Histamine
D. How and why is a fever produced?
E. Distinguish among neutrophils, macrophages, and natural killer cells
SG 2 – Immune Response (927 – 929) and Disease Transmission and Prevention
(930-932) [10b, 10c]
A. Describe the function of the different types of white blood cells involved in the
immune response
B. Explain how the body recognizes a pathogen such as the influenza virus.
Atingen
C. Distinguish between the method of the T cell response and the B cell response.
D. Relate antibodies to plasma cells
E. Explain how the body responses more quickly after a second exposure to a
pathogen
F. Describe how Jenner successfully generated a vaccination
G. Define a vaccine and explain how they work.
SG 3 – Disorders of the Immune System (933-936) and Viruses (438-441) [10e]
A. Define an autoimmune disease and list several examples.
B. Summarize how HIV infects cells
C. Relate HIV to AIDS
D. Explain why someone with a compromised (not fully function) immune system
is more susceptive to certain common diseases.
Unit 12: Nervous and Endocrine System
SG 1 - Neurons and Nerve Impulses (944-949) and Drugs and the Nervous System
(961-963) [9d]
A. Draw a neuron and label it with dendrites, cell body, nucleus, axon, myelin
sheath, nodes, and axon terminals
B. Describe the 3 types of neurons
C. Distinguish between resting potential and action potential. Which ions are
involved in maintaining resting and action potentials?
D. What stimulates a neural impulse? What does a threshold mean?
E. How are signals sent between neurons? Synapse neurotransmitter
SG 2 - Structures of the Nervous System (950-955) [9b, 9e]
A. What is the function of the central nervous system?
B. Explain the function of each part of the brain: cerebrum, cerebellum, brain stem,
thalamus, hypothalamus.
C. What is the function of each division of the peripheral nervous system: somatic,
sympathetic, parasympathetic.
SG 3 - Sensory Systems (956-960) [9b]
A. What are the functions of sensory receptors and where can they be found?
B. Describe the function of each part of the eye: pupil, lens, retina, optic nerve.
C. Distinguish between rods and cones. If someone is red-green colorblind, are
rods or cones effected?
D. Briefly describe the other forms of sensing besides vision.
SG 4 - Hormones (974-976) and How Hormones Work (977-980) [9c]
A. What is the function of the endocrine system?
B. Describe what a hormone is and how it travels through the body.
C. Distinguish between steroid and nonsteroid hormones.
D. Use metabolism control to explain how feedback inhibition maintains
homeostasis.
Unit 13: Body Systems
To be handed out separately
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