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PAPOSO: AEROSOL SUPER SITE & VOCALS REX 2008
CONTENTS
Contents
Scientific background
Experimental and modeling design
Observational and modeling implementation
Meteorological Soundings
Surface meteorology
Cloud base and cover
In situ monitoring of volcanic emissions???
Passive samplers
Cloud Condensation Nuclei
Aerosol loading, distribution and radiative properties
Sunphotometer from AERONET
Modeling implementation
Regional simulations of oxidized sulfur dispersion
WRF related @ DGF
WRF related @ UNAB
Participants
Chile
Dirección Meteorológica de Chile
Universidad Andrés Bello
Universidad de Chile
Universidad de Valparaíso
Sweden
Stockholms Universitet
United States
University of Alaska
University of Washington
Activities
Looking for a sampling site
Conferences, meetings and seminars
Written Material
Papers
Theses and exams
Projects
Associated
Contributing
References
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Paposo Land Site
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SCIENTIFIC BACKGROUND
The optical properties of the stratus deck over the South East Pacific (SEP) region,
and elsewhere, depend on both atmospheric and oceanic dynamics and to the abundance
of cloud condensation nuclei (CCN).
Relevant atmospheric dynamics to be studied around Paposo
Over the SEP region there are multiple sources of aerosols which may act as cloud
cloud condensation nuclei (CCN), affecting the physical and optical properties of the
most persistent stratocumulus (Sc) deck of the world. Air-sea exchange of trace gases
and particles, e.g., dimethyl sulfide (DMS, CH3-S-S-CH3) and sea-salt, which provide
efficient CCN, is thought to be very important within the Humboldt Current System off
Chile and Southern Peru (e.g., Boucher et al, 2003). This is due to the fact that these
cold nutrient-rich waters are continuously renewed by wind driven coastal upwelling
and exposed to light allowing phytoplankton and zooplankton production, which in turn
give rise to the accumulation and degassing of climatically relevant trace species such
as carbon dioxide (CO2), dimethylsulfide, nitrous oxide (N2O), etc. Also, the subduction
of the Nazca plate under the Andes and the South American continent induces an area
of distinct volcanic activity along the Central Andes where numerous volcanoes show
persistent fumarolic activity that probably provides a rather continuous source of sulfate
(e.g., Mather et al, 2004), which in connection with down slope winds may supply
effective CCN over the stratocumulus deck. Furthermore, there is evidence of a
potential perturbation of the subtropical stratocumulus deck due to anthropogenic
emissions of oxidized sulfur (SOx) that occur mainly due to copper smelting along the
continental strip of Chile and Peru (Kuang and Yung, 2000; Huneeus et al, 2006).
Anthropogenic sulfate aerosols emitted from smelters located uphill the Andes would
reach the stratus deck in connection with strong easterly wind events, whereas coastal
emissions would be advected by trade winds. In addition to the copper industry, urban
centers, particularly Santiago (33.5S, 70.5W, 500 m.a.s.l.) and Lima (12S, 80W, 50
ma.s.l.), also constitute significant sources of aerosols and trace species that may have
an impact on the stratus deck off the coast. Finally, dust, particularly in semi-desertic
areas at the Southern bound of the Atacama Desert may also provide particles that may
become activated as CCN and perhaps more importantly, affect the coastal biochemistry
by means of iron deposition (e.g., Jickells et al, 2005).
EXPERIMENTAL AND MODELING DESIGN
Increases in cloud droplet number concentration (CDNC) can be observed in
connection with easterly wind events downwind from anthropogenic sources, mainly
copper smelters in Northern Chile (Huneeus et al, 2006). Figure 1 shows cloud droplet
number concentration (CDNC, in cm-3) as derived from satellite data. Average CDNC
for the period between July 20 and August 20, 2000, is shown on the right panel; the left
panel shows CDNC for July 26th in connection with a strong easterly wind event
(winds in excess of 5 m/s at 700 hPa). Displayed on the figure are the location of the
power plant Tocopilla (1) and cooper smelters Chuquicamata (2), Noranda (3),
Potrerillos (4) and Paipote (5). The oxidized sulfur emissions of these sources added up
to 215 GgS/y in 2000. Circulation conditions favorable for the occurrence of easterly
wind events present a synoptic structure typical of the coastal troughing at the onset
stage of coastal-low events farther south in Chile (e.g. Garreaud et al., 2002). Huneeus
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et al (2006) have suggested that these changes in CDNC obey to the impact of
anthropogenic sulfur sources, mainly copper smelters. However, other aerosol sources
may also be at play. For instance, easterly wind events are concurrent with an
enhancement of the lo-level jet (LLJ) system that may drive stronger air-sea exchange
inducing sea-salt emissions and enhanced biogenic activity. Also, along the central
Andes, multiple volcanoes show quasi-permanent fumarolic activity that may constitute
a significant natural source of aerosols, particularly sulfate aerosols. In summer, when
convection over the Amazon basin disturbs or often disrupts the prevailing westerlies in
the upper troposphere, volcanic aerosols may become relevant as precursors of CCN,
particularly when the upper easterlies are enhanced by coastal-low like circulation
patterns in the lower atmosphere.
Figure 1.
Hypothesis 1: The composition and size distribution of activated aerosols acting as
cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) changes in connection with easterly wind events,
showing a distinct signal of anthropogenic sulfate, particularly in near shore stratus.
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Observational and modeling implementation
We will perform in situ measurements of wind, temperature, radiation, aerosol and
cloud condensation nuclei concentrations, composition and size distribution in a coastal
site, Paposo (25º0’S,70º27’, 700 ma.s.l), over which stratocumulus (Sc) clouds summit,
particularly during winter and spring (REF Pepe’s student). Paposo is a fishermen
village with ca. 200 inhabitants. Uphill from Paposo, at 700 m.a.s.l., there is a Protected
Area run by the Chilean Forest Service (CONAF, http://www.conaf.cl/). Vegetation at
this site is typical for the coastal desert, highly endemic, and its only water supply is
drizzle from the coastal Sc (Camanchaca). Paposo is 50 km north of the city of Taltal
(ca. 12000 inhab), and 160 km south of Antofagasta (300000 inhab). Except for a power
plant located some 2 km north from the village, Paposo is generally free from the direct
impact of anthropogenic sources of aerosols and aerosol precursors. The power plant,
which belongs to ENDESA S.A (http://www.endesa.cl), uses natural gas and, to a lesser
extent, diesel as fuel (This might have changed as the supply of Natural Gas from
Argentina has been severely cut down during the last year.). According to official
estimates, its emissions in 2005 were: 20 ktons nitrogen oxides, 21 tons sulfur oxides,
and 43 tons particulate matter (CONAMA, 2007). According to preliminary model
calculations, on an episodic basis, emissions from copper smelters located to the southeast of Paposo (Paipote and Potrerillos) and active volcanoes to the north-east of Paposo
(Láscar and Lastarria) should produce sulfur signals of a few ppb oxidized sulfur
(Gallardo, 2008).
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Meteorological Soundings
Associated Project1: ?
Contributing Project2:
Leading Institution: Chilean Weather Office (Dirección Meteorológica de Chile)
Contact persons: Jorge Carrasco (jcarras@meteochile.cl) and Juan Aravena
(jaravena@dgac.cl)
Operators at site: ??
Location: Paposo lower site
Meteorological soundings (wind, temperature, humidity) will be carried out by the
Chilean Weather Office at Cerro Moreno (23.43°S, 70.43°W, 137 m.a.s.l.) and at
Paposo downhill (25º0’S,70º27’, 20 ma.s.l). At Cerro Moreno there will be two
soundings per day at 14 and 20 UTC over the period between October 15th and
November 30th 2008. At Paposo there will be between 3 and 4 soundings per day. These
soundings will provide information about stability, mixing processes and the origin of
air masses reaching Paposo (oceanic vs. continental).
Associated instruments, power requirements and fungibles
To be completed
1
2
Projects specifically designed to carry out VOCALS’ measurements or modeling activities
Projects that directly or indirectly support VOCALS activities
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Surface meteorology
Associated Project:??
Contributing Project:
Leading Institution: Departamento de Geofísica, Universidad de Chile
Contact person: José Rutllant (jrutllan@dgf.uchile.cl)
Operators at site: ??
Location: Paposo lower and upper sites
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Cloud base and cover
Associated Project: ¿?
Contributing Project:
Leading Institution: Departamento de Geofísica, Universidad de Chile
Contact persons: Ricardo Muñoz (rmunoz@dgf.uchile.cl), René
(rgarreau@dgf.uchile.cl)
Operators at site: ??
Location: Paposo lower site
Associated instruments, power requirements and fungibles
Garreaud
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In situ monitoring of volcanic emissions???
Associated Project
Contributing Project:
Leading Institution:
Contact person:
Operators at site:
Location:
….Scientific framework for measurements….
Associated instruments and power requirements (For details see Table X):
 Instrument 1: what for, measurement technique
To be discussed with Alvaro Amigo, Andrés Pavez and SERNAGEOMIN
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Passive samplers
Associated Project: : , ??
Contributing Project: South American Emissions Mega-cities and Climate (SAEMC,
IAI-2017)
Leading Institution: Departamento de Meteorología, Universidad de Valparaíso
Contact person: Ana María Córdova (anamaria.cordova@uv.cl)
Operators at site: , ??
Location: Paposo TBD
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Cloud Condensation Nuclei
Associated Project: Anthropogenic Effects on natural cloud properties (FORMAS,
http://www.formas.se, Sweden)
Contributing Project: South American Emissions Mega-cities and Climate (SAEMC,
IAI-2017)
Leading Institution: Department of Meteorology, Stockholm University
Contact person: Radovan Krejci (radek@misu.su.se)
Operators at site: Ana María Córdova (anamaria.cordova@uv.cl) , ??
Location: Paposo upper side
Activated aerosols (CCN) in the stratocumulus deck will be sampled and analyzed in
situ using the Counterflow Virtual Impactor (CVI) instrument. Sampled air from the
CVI probe is directed to instrumentation to measure the concentration, size and
chemical composition of the cloud droplet residual particles, and the condensed water
content of the clouds. We will be able to measure the concentration and size distribution
of particles between 0.01 to ca. 5µm diameter, covering the entire range of particle sizes
expected to be important in determining the number concentration of cloud droplets.
Particles will also be collected on filters for chemical analysis. One sample will be taken
for single particle analysis, allowing determining the elemental composition of
individual aerosol particles and thereby determining the chemical composition of the
particles controlling the number population of cloud droplets – not just the bulk
composition. A second bulk filter sample will be taken on which a more detailed
analysis of the organic compounds can be performed. Measurements of the interstitial
aerosol, switching between the CVI to aerosol inlet, will also be performed. Cloud
residual particles will be sampled on polycarbonate nuclepore filters for consecutive
analysis using Scanning Electron Microscope (available in Sweden).
Associated instruments and power requirements (For details see Table X):

Particle Soot/Absorption Photometer (PSAP): The Particle Soot/Absorption
Photometer (PSAP) is used to measure in near real time the light absorption
coefficient. PSAP is a filter-based method that measures light absorption by
particles at a single wavelength: green (565 nm). Particles are collected on a
filter and light transmission through the filter is monitored continuously.

Counterflow Virtua Impactator (CVI) system: Study aerosol activation as a
function of aerosol size and number density

Total power requirement: 3 kW
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Aerosol loading, distribution and radiative properties
Associated Project: SGER: VOCALS-Studying the influences of Continental Aerosols
in the Stratocumulus Clouds; NSF-ATM – 0839872
Contributing Project:
Leading Institution: Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks
Contact person: Javier Fochesatto <foch@gi.alaska.edu>
Operators at site: J. Fochesatto, Catherine F. Cahill, Glenn Shaw
Location: Lower site (Lidar) and high elevation site (aerosol samplers, in situ and total
column optical instruments)
In the framework of the Variability of the American Monsoon Systems (VAMOS)
Ocean-Cloud-Atmosphere-Land Study Regional Experiment (VOCALS-REx), this
project will study the changes in the microphysical characteristics of the Stratocumulus
(Sc) cloud layer off the coast of Chile in the Southeast Pacific (SEP) system which is
under the influence of polluted continental air masses. This research proposes to deploy
a complete set of tropospheric aerosol instruments at the land-ocean boundary of the
VOCALS-REx experiment at Paposo (~700 m ASL) in Chile during October 2008. This
exploratory research aims to connect the in-situ chemical composition of aerosols, the
total column aerosol optical properties, and in situ aerosol microphysical characteristics
measured at the high-elevation land site with the MBL (Marine Boundary Layer)
dynamical structure and the microphysical and structural changes of the Sc layer during
interaction of the Sc with the polluted air masses flowing off-coast of Chile. Aerosol
composition, concentration, size distribution, total column optical properties, cloud
condensation nuclei, transport height, backscattering near infrared (NIR) reflectivity of
aerosols and clouds, and MBL dynamics will be measured to determine how the offshore continental aerosols are entrained in the MBL, and how microphysical-structural
changes induced in the Sc cloud layer can be determined using polarimetric lidar
measurements.
Associated instruments and power requirements (For details see Table X):

Lidar measurements will be used to map the MBL and Sc cloud layer structure
using a compact eye-safe polarimetric lidar. This lidar is a proven system based on a
rugged, solid-state laser working at near infrared (NIR) wavelength 1.574µm and
eye-safe all the ranges; with very low molecular backscatter (~10-8 sr-1 m-1) and a
minimum molecular depolarization threshold (~0.1%) (Fochesatto et al., 2005;
2007b). The lidar will be key to documenting structural parameters of MBL
dynamics (i.e. mixed layer height and entrainment zone thickness) and in retrieving
backscattering and polarimetric properties of aerosols and cloud. The backscattering
signal is extremely sensitive to sub-micron particles (radii between 0.1 to 1 µm)
with ~100 times less sensitivity to molecules in the atmosphere when compared to
visible lasers. Because they lack inertia, sub-micron aerosols are excellent tracers of
dynamic tropospheric processes, making lidar an ideal tool for the study of
boundary layer processes and aerosol-cloud interaction (Flamant and Pelon, 1996;
Drobinski et al., 1998; Fochesatto et al., 2001; 2003). Signal reflectivity in the lower
troposphere is mostly due to aerosol scatterers mixed in the MBL by a capping
temperature inversion or entrained in the MBL air from the air aloft (i.e., as a
consequence of updraft and downdraft motions on top of the convective boundary
layer). As a result, the lidar signal in clear-sky conditions is generally observed to be
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large in the MBL and to decrease rapidly above it (Flamant et al., 1997).
Nevertheless, in complex episodes (e.g., MBL evolution in the presence of advected
smoke and/or dust layers) the signal adopts vertical gradients associated with
aerosol structures in the free troposphere. In addition to fully exploring aerosol
injection and cloud interaction, the polarimetric lidar will be operated in linear and
circular polarization modes to determine linear and circular polarization ratios and
differential reflectivities (Fochesatto et al., 2007b). Depolarization measurement is
a light-scattering process; therefore, the maximum depolarization level is achieved
when the particle size is on the order of the laser wavelength. Depolarization
decreases as the nonspherical particle size parameter decreases and is measurable
down to molecular clusters (Fochesatto et al., 2007b). By combining linear and
circular modes, scattering asymmetries and anisotropies in clouds will be retrieved.
When combined with scattering models, the depolarization fraction enables aerosol
typing and derivation of cloud microphysical state and microphysical parameter
retrievals.
Chemical Speciation of Aerosols: A three-stage (0.1-0.34, 0.34-1.15, and 1.15-2.5
µm aerodynamic diameters) DRUM aerosol sampling system (Perry et al., 1999)
and a five-stage aerosol cascade impactor at size fractions of <0.25, 0.25-0.5, 0.5-1,
1-2.5, and >2.5 µm will collect size-segregated chemical measurements of aerosols.
Aerosol collected with the DRUM sampler will be analyzed by S-XRF techniques;
samples collected with the five-stage sampler will be analyzed by LRS to determine
elemental composition, carbonaceous components, inorganic ions (sulfates and
nitrates), organic compounds (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons), mass, size, and
optical absorption. These data will be used to identify likely continental aerosol
sources transported to the offshore marine environment. Desert dusts are enriched in
Al, Si, Ca, and Fe, industrial pollutants in Ni, Cu, and Zn, marine aerosols in Na and
Cl, and biomass smoke in K (Wetzel et al., 2003). The proposed methodology
mirrors that used during previous trace-metal sampling at the NOAA Global
Monitoring Division Observatory at Barrow, Alaska, from March 2002 through
April 2003, and measurements made at Poker Flat Research Range and Adak Island,
Alaska, during the Aerosol Characterization Experiment-Asia in spring 2001
(Cahill, 2003) and recent ground-based and aircraft measurements made from the
NASA-P3 airplane during the Arctic Research on the Composition of the
Troposphere from Aircraft and Satellites (ARCTAS) spring 2008 campaign.
Optical and microphysical properties of aerosols: Aerosol size distribution will be
deduced by combining measurements from a scanning mobility particle
spectrometer (SMPS) and an optical particle counter (OPC). The size distribution of
aerosols in the diameter range of 10-350 nm at a time resolution of 15 minutes will
be derived with a TSI SMPS system consisting of a TSI 3071 Differential Mobility
Analyzer and a TSI 3010 Condensation Nucleus Counter. Since the sampling
concentrations can be estimated based on numerical dispersion models for the
region in the conditions of the experiment (Gallardo et al., 2002; Huneeus et al.,
2006), the SMPS will be programmed to average measurements over 0.10-2.0µm
diameter at ≈15 minute time resolution. The OPC will measure concentration of
aerosols in the 0.3-2.0µm diameter range.
Absorption coefficient will be quantified based on Aethalometer measurements
(Hansen et al., 1982). The atmosphere’s optical depth will be measured with a
multi-wavelength Sun-photometer, which incorporates well-blocked (less than
0.01% leakage at all wavelengths) interference filters manufactured by Barr Corp. at
375, 500, and 725 nm wavelengths and a close-together wavelength pair at 800 and
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

950 nm, the latter being in the center of the water vapor band for determining
precipitable water. The aerosol scattering coefficient will be measured at 550 nm
with an M-903 Integrating Nephelometer (Radiance Research, Seattle). Air flow
will be set at ≤5 LPM and data will be averaged to 15 min. Calibration will be
performed by filling the scattering volume with CF-22 before and after the
experiment. Details about optical measurements can be found in Shaw (2007).
Aerosol samples are expected to include urban, industrial, and natural contributions
from sources in continental Chile flowing to the marine environment. From
measured aerosol size-distribution and concentration and known values of ocean
surface albedo, we will compute the aerosol scattering-phase function and singlescattering albedo. The project will measure the natural CCN concentration and the
size spectrum of nucleated particles, and will obtain the supersaturation spectrum
(number concentration of droplets at a given supersaturation level) (Cantrell et al.,
2000). These parameters are key to evaluating the aerosol influences on the cloud
microphysics under study. A CCN concentration counter will be used at 0.3 or 0.5
% supersaturation (DH Associates with a Twomey static thermal diffusion
chamber). Combining the SMPS and sun photometry data the CCN will provide
additional information about the size spectrum of nucleated and non-nucleated
particles. From the deduced CCN spectra the soluble fraction of aerosols () can be
calculated (Ji et al., 1998; Ji and Shaw, 1998; Cantrell et al., 2000).
Total power requierement: 4,4 kW
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Sunphotometer from AERONET
Associated Project
Contributing Project:
Leading Institution:
Contact person:
Operators at site:
Location:
….Scientific framework for measurements….
Associated instruments and power requirements (For details see Table X):
 Instrument 1: what for, measurement technique
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Modeling implementation
The data collected will be further analyzed and put into a regional framework by
means of high resolution regional- and meso-scale simulations using a weather forecast
model as well as dispersion simulations including natural and anthropogenic oxidized
sulfur sources. Satellite data (e.g., cloud droplet radii, cloud cover, liquid water path,
SO2 loading, etc.) will also complement these analyses.
Regional simulations of oxidized sulfur dispersion
Associated Project: None
Contributing Project: South American Emissions Mega-cities and Climate (SAEMC,
IAI-2017)
Leading Institution: Departamento de Geofísica & Centro de Modelamiento
Matemático, Universidad de Chile
Contact person: Laura Gallardo (laura@dgf.uchile.cl)
The model exercise will consist of regional scale weather simulations obtained from
the dynamical downscaling of reanalysis fields using the techniques described by
Rummukainen al (2001). These simulations will be evaluated against remotely sensed
data and in situ meteorological measurements, with emphasis in the years 2000 and
2001, when smaller campaigns have been performed (e.g., Garreaud et al, 2001,
Bretherton et al, 2004). Further, these meteorological outputs will be used to drive a
regional scale emission-transport-deposition model (e.g., Robertson et al, 1999;
Huneeus et al, 2006) to simulate the fate of oxidized sulfur emitted from copper
smelters, volcanoes, and the fraction derived from dimethyl sulfide (DMS) oxidation.
Emission data will be compiled from official records, previous studies, and by
implementing a parameterization of DMS emissions (e.g., Boucher et al, 2003). Satellite
data, particularly that provided by the Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI), will be
used to constrain large industrial emissions and volcanoes (Carn et al, 2007). Once
evaluated, the same modeling system, now using forecasted fields, will allow an
interpretation and contextualization of the data collected in situ.
Also, in collaboration with the Swedish team, a regional climate model (e.g., Ekman,
2002) with integrated sulfur cycle and interactions with stratocumulus clouds, will be
used to asses the regional distribution of the oxidized sulfur and its direct and indirect
radiative effects over Central and Northern Chile.
WRF related @ DGF
Associated Project: ??? With Graham Feingold?
Contributing Project:
Leading Institution: Departamento de Geofísica, Universidad de Chile
Contact person: René Garreaud (rgarreau@dgf.uchile.cl)
WRF related @ UNAB
Associated Project: ??? Greg Carmichael??
Contributing Project: South American Emissions Mega-cities and Climate (SAEMC,
IAI-2017)
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Leading Institution: Universidad Andrés Bello
Contact person: Marcelo Mena (mmena@unab.cl)
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PARTICIPANTS
The participanting institutions and researchers are listed below. The respective
coordinator or principal investigator is underlined.
Chile
Dirección Meteorológica de Chile
 Jorge Carrasco (jcarras@meteochile.cl)
 Juan Aravena (jaravena@dgac.cl)
Universidad Andrés Bello
 Marcelo Mena (mmena@unab.cl)





Universidad de Chile
Laura Gallardo (lgallard@dim.uchile.cl or laura@dgf.uchile.cl )
René Garreaud (rgarreau@dgf.uchile.cl)
Ricardo Muñoz (rmunoz@dgf.uchile.cl)
José Rutllant (jrutllan@dgf.uchile.cl)
Rainer Schmitz (schmitzr@dgf.uchile.c)
Universidad de Valparaíso
 Ana María Córdova (anamaria.cordova@uv.cl)
Sweden




Stockholms Universitet
Annica Ekman (ekman@misu.su.se)
Radovan Krejci (radek@misu.su.se)
Johan Ström (johan@itm.su.se)
Peter Tunved (peter.tunved@itm.su.se)
United States
University of Alaska
 Javier Fochessato (foch@gi.alaska.edu)
University of Washington
 Robert Wood (robwood@atmos.washington.edu)
 Duli Chand (duli@u.washington.edu)
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ACTIVITIES
Looking for a sampling site
Scouting trips to several sites in Northern Chile have been or will be carried out,
including Michilla and Paposo. Details about the sites can be found in Annexes 1 and 2.
Conferences, meetings and seminars
These activities are summarized in Annex 3.
WRITTEN MATERIAL
Papers
Theses and exams
PROJECTS
Associated
These projects have been specifically designed to carry out VOCALS’ measurements
and modeling activities.



Anthropogenic
Effects
on
natural
cloud
properties
(FORMAS,
http://www.formas.se, Sweden)
SGER: VOCALS-Studying the influences of Continental Aerosols in the
Stratocumulus Clouds; NSF-ATM – 0839872
Tubos pasivos
Contributing
These projects directly or indirectly support VOCALS activities


South American Emissions Mega-cities and Climate (SAEMC, IAI-2017,
http://saemc.cmm.uchile.cl/)
Anillo…
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REFERENCES
Boucher, O., C. Moulin, S. Belviso O. Aumont, L. Bopp, E. Cosme, R. von
Kuhlmann,M. G. Lawrence, M. Pham, M. S. Reddy, J. Sciare, and C.
Venkataraman (2003) , DMS atmospheric concentrations and sulphate aerosol
indirect radiative forcing: a sensitivity study to the DMS source representation
and oxidation, Atmos. Chem. & Phys., 3, 9-65.
Carn, S. A., Krueger, A., Krotkov, N.A., Yang, K., and Levelt, P. F. (2007). Sulfur
dioxide emissions from Peruvian copper smelters detected by the Ozone
Monitoring Instrument. GRL Accepted for publication.
Ekman, A.M.L., Small-scale patterns of sulfate aerosol climate forcing simulated with a
high-resolution regional climate model, Tellus Series B-Chemical and Physical
Meteorology, 54 (2), 143-162, 2002.
Huneeus, N., L. Gallardo, and J. A. Rutllant (2006). Offshore transport episodes of
anthropogenic sulfur in northern Chile: Potential impact on the stratocumulus
cloud deck, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L19819, doi: 10.1029/2006GL026921.
Garreaud R., J. Rutllant and H. Fuenzalida (2002), Coastal Lows along the Subtropical
West Coast of South America: Mean Structure and Evolution, Mon. Weather
Rev., 130, 75-88.
Krejci, R (2007). Anthropogenic effects on natural cloud properties. Proposal to the
Swedish Research Council.
Kuang and Yung (2000). Reflectivity variations off the Peru Coast: Evidence for
indirect effect of anthropogenic sulfate aerosols on clouds. Geophysical
Research Letters, Volume 27, Issue 16, p. 2501-2504, DOI
10.1029/2000GL011376
Jickells, T. D., Z. S. An, K. K. Andersen, A. R. Baker, G. Bergametti, N. Brooks, J. J.
Cao, P. W. Boyd, R. A. Duce, K. A. Hunter, H. Kawahata, N. Kubilay, J.
LaRoche, P.S. Liss, N. Mahowald, J. M. Prospero, A.J. Ridgwell, I. Tegen and R.
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