SELECTIVE BREEDING AND BROODSTOCK MANAGEMENT
IN AQUACULTURE
Supattra Uraiwan
Aquatic Animal Genetics Research and Development Institute
Department of Fisheries
Introduction
Plant and animal husbandry have been so greatly improved genetically that their lowyield ancestors can barely be recognized. The one exception is fish. Domestication of fish,
which for some species such as common carp (Cyprinus carpio) has gone on for thousands of
years, has produced only rather small genetic changes, not all for the better.
The domestication of fish species is intensively followed by selection involving the
change of heredity of the cultivated species and the development of breeds adapted to life
under new environmental conditions.
This paper mainly deals with aquaculture genetics, selective breeding and broodstock
management incorporated basic and breeding concepts into routine hatchery management in
order to maximize the biological potential of the fish.
Selective Breeding Program
Genetic theories can be applied to selective breeding program in light of quantitative
genetic including selection and mating system.
I Selection
In aquaculture, selection is not commonly used probably because of poor extension of
knowledge from researchers to farmers. However, selection is the efficient method in animal
breeding programs because it can lead to the long term goals of genetic improvements.
Several components of a selection program will be discussed:
1. Traits of interest
Growth is an easy parameter for phenotypic measurement. It can be measured as
change in length or weight which is defined as growth rate. Growth rate is perhaps the most
important trait of interest in food fish culture such as tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), common
carp and Thai silver barb (Puntius gonionotus) . Growth of fish and shellfish are affected by
environmental change. Brett (1979) listed environmental factors which affect growth. He
classified them into limiting and controlling environmental factors. Genetic parameters of
growth that should be estimated are heritability, genotype-environment interaction and genetic
correlation with other traits. When these parameters are estimated, one can decide which
selection procedure will be used.
The example of heritability on growth rate is illustrated in the case of Thai silver barb,
heritability of growth rate of body weight and length at 111, 170, 231 and 276 days have
average between 0.244 to 1.047 and 0.056 to 0.877, respectively (Jitpiromsri, 1986). This
indicated the high variation of growth heritability estimates.
2. Selection procedures appropriate for aquaculture
There are number selection procedures that have been used in husbandry industrial,
but all of them cannot be suitable in aquaculture. The following selection procedures have
been applied in aquaculture and will be appropriate for economic species.
2.1 Modified mass selection
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This technique is developed by Doyle and Talbot (1986). The procedure is to match
equal size of individuals at the initial grow-out period and the select them base on their
subsequent growth rate. This technique avoids phenotypic variation due to different time of
spawning and hatching. With this technique, selection can be done on size-specific growth
rate instead of size at age, which will result in improve response to mass selection in intensive
systems. The weight-specific growth selection experiments of Oreochromis niloticus have
been reported by Jarimopas (1986). After three generation of selection, the realized heritability
was 0.19.
2.2 Within-family selection
The criterion of within-family selection is the deviation of each individual from
the mean value of the family to which it belongs (Falconer, 1981). This selection procedure is
recommended to O. niloticus or species which have unsynchronous spawning (Uraiwan and
Doyle, 1986). This selection program was designed to minimize problems created by limited
aquaculture facilities, asynchonous spawning and inbreeding. The within-family selection to
increase growth rate of O.niloticus have been carried out for three generations at government
fisheries station in Thailand (Uraiwan and Meewan, 1995). The results showed that realized
heritability was estimated at 0.14 and 0.27 for weight and residual weight, respectively. The
selected fish were 21% heavier than control fish. These results indicated that within-family
selection is an appropriate procedure for improving tilapia growth rate in developing countries
such as Thailand.
In addition, selective program to improve growth rate of giant freshwater
prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) has been carried out at the Aquatic Animal Genetics
Research and Development Institute during 1998 to 2000 (Uraiwan et al., 2003). Withinfamily selection procedure was applied on growth rate of culture prawns. The experiment
consisted of two lines including a high growth selected line and a control line. The selection
responses were estimated after one generation of selection. Female prawns of the selected line
at 20 weeks of age were significant (P<0.01) 5 and 15 % and 6 and 22% larger by length and
weight than those of the control line and their parent generation, respectively. Similarly, male
prawns of the selected line at 20 weeks of age were significant (P<0.01) 7 and 14 % and 7 and
17% larger by length and weight than those of the control line and their parent generation,
respectively. Estimate realized heritabilities at one generation of selection were moderate. The
average heritabilities in length and weight at age of 20 week were 0.38 and 0.22, respectively.
The results of this experiment illustrate that the within-family selection is the efficient
procedure to improve growth of the giant freshwater prawn, and this method should be
recommended in the broodstock management .
2.3 Combined selection
Combined selection is a method where the animals are chosen based on their
individual phenotypic value and the phenotypic value of the family to which they belong. The
phenotypic value of an individual is made up of two components. That is, P = Pf + Pw , where
P is the Pf is the phenotypic deviation of the family mean from the population mean and Pw is
the phenotypic deviation of the individual from the family mean (Falconer, 1981). Obviously,
the combined selection requires individual measurement. Combined selection has seldom
been used in aquaculture improvement. However, one experiment suggested the combined
selection method for genetic improvement of the European oyster (Ostrea edulis) by
Jarayabhand (1989). He recommended this selection method in a non-competitive
environment for the European oyster. Based on the results of two selection, they found that the
estimated relative selection response in family, within-family and in combined selection was
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1.94, 0.515 and 1.99, respectively, assuming the same selection intensity. This selection
method can be successful if used in aquaculture in Asia.
2.4 Indirect selection
Competitive behaviour is one of the most important factors which causes a variation in
the growth of fish and shellfish such as common carp and freshwater prawn, Macrobrachium
rosenbergii, (Malecha, 1988 and Moav and Wohlfarth, 1974). The effects of this behaviour
confounds the growth estimate. Bigger animal may not grow faster because they are
genetically superior, but perhaps as a result of aggression in obtaining food. Therefore, when
food is limited, selection based on big size would not necessarily give big offspring.
Behaviour is another factor to be taken into account for selection programs, especially in
animals with skewed growth distribution. If the growth performance is related to behaviour,
selection for behaviour would indirectly effect growth. However, the genetic correlation
between these traits will have to be estimated.
Maturity is another trait that is related to growth. Mckay et al. (1986) found the
heritability estimate of age at maturity of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) was 0.12+0.14, but
the genetic correlation between growth and age at maturity was not reported. A positive
genetic correlation between growth rate and age at maturity was observed in chum salmon,
Oncorhynchus keta, while a negative genetic correlation between these traits was found in
chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, (Ricker 1980a and b). Gjerde and Gjedrem
(1984) found a high negative correlation (-0.52) between body weight and age at maturation
in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and a low correlation (-0.11) in rainbow trout. Genetic
correlations are different in different fish. There can be no generalization, and the type of
magnitude of the correlation has to be established for species under different conditions. Also
differences, if any, due to environmental change must be considered before the selection
programs can be decided on. Response to indirect selection depends on degree of genetic
correlation and heritability of traits. A study on direct selection on growth of O. niloticus,
(direct selection for early and late maturity) was carried out for three generations in an
aquaculture system in Thailand (Uraiwan, 1988). The data was not appropriate to estimate the
genetic correlation between these traits. However, indirect response in growth occurred after
three generations of selection. Fish selected for early maturation grew 22-24% and 19-25%
faster than fish selected for late maturation in the first and second generation of selection,
respectively. Age at maturity is easy to observe and is very practical in Asian farms.
Therefore, the breeder should apply a selection program for age at maturity as an indirect
selection for growth.
2.5 Selection index
It is economic in terms of time, money and effort, to perform selection on several
characters simultaneously. This is because the economic value depends on several characters.
For instance, the profit in fish and shellfish depends on growth rate, efficiency to utilize food
and disease resistance. There are three methods of selection for simultaneous selection of
several characters (reviewed by Tave, 1986). First is tandem selection which applies a
selection pressure to one trait, then one that is fixed. It is applied to other traits. Second is the
independent culling level which sets standard limits on each economic trait independently of
the others. Third and the most efficient and rapid improvement to economic value is the index
selection method. This method applies selection simultaneously to all component traits
together, regarding their economic importance, heritabilities and genetic and phenotypic
correlation between traits. These components are combined into a selection score, and which
is shown below:
I = b1 X1 + b2 X2 + b3 X3 +............... bn Xn (Falconer, 1981)
where I is the selection index, b1 to bn are the multiple regression coefficients and
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X’s are individual phenotypes (for example, growth, food efficiency, survival, etc.). The
multiple regression coefficient is obtained from heritabilities, genetic correlations and
economic importance of these traits.
The following are two examples of index selection in fish and shellfish. Reagan et al.
(1976) developed a selection index for channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) for weight and
length at 5 and 15 months, while Gall (1979) developed one for rainbow trout. The selection
index along with information on the genetic correlations between growth at larval stage and
growth at grow-out stage will help achieving genetic improvement. The estimates of
heritabilities and genetic correlation of traits vary in different environments. Therefore,
genotype-environment interaction should be taken into account. Index selection is
recommended to aquaculture in this region, but one should also consider environmental
differences. Selection index should be corrected for changing environments.
2.6 Choice of strain selection
Strain selection is the first step in establishing hatchery stock. The farmer should select
superior strains which perform best in his hatchery. The same species from different locations
should be tested for their performance in different farms. Thus, the best strain can be selected
for a particular type of aquaculture system. This method is appropriate for the species for
which the farmer acquires seed from natural water. Farmers can select the best strain from
different locations, and then improve his own hatchery stock by selection methods. Therefore,
differences in growth rate or other economic traits between strains which are available in
nature should be tested. Kinghorn (1983) stated that natural strains that fit domestic
environments could save many years of within-strain selection.
A number of researchers have studied strain differences in various performances. In
most cases, strain differences were detected.
Regarding growth, Chevassus (1979) found fingerling growth rate differences between
strains of rainbow trout, while Refstie and Steine (1978) reported genetic variations in length
and weight after the freshwater phase of 32 Norwegian strains of Atlantic salmon. Wohlfarth
et al. (1975) saw differences in growth between strains of carps. Uraiwan (1982) observed
growth rate differences between strains of rainbow trout and their hybrids reared in hatchery
with different feeding rations and temperatures. Differences in length and weight gain of
sliver carp were found in two hatchery strains and wild populations from the Changjiang and
Zhujiang rivers in China (Li et al., 1987). In disease resistance studies, strain differences have
reported in Atlantic salmon (Gjedrem and Aulstad, 1974) and in common carp (Hines et al.,
1974). In reproductive performances studies, egg size, egg number, egg volume and egg/kg.
body weight of female have been observed in different strains of rainbow trout (Gall, 1975).
Preliminary genetic improvement program of silver barb (Puntius gonionotus) in Thailand
indicated genetic different between farms in northeast of Thailand (Uraiwan et al., 1999). The
growth rate comparison between 5 farms of silver barb has been carried out in farm pond
environments. Three populations of snake skinned gourami, Trichogaster pectoralis (Regan)
were evaluated three performances under an intensive culture condition (Tipbunpot et al.,
2005). The three natural populations represented gourami from three provinces, namely,
Samutprakan, Suphanburi and Pattani. They have been cultured separately in nine 400m2
earthen ponds at Surathani province for the period of ten months. The Samutprakan and
Pattani populations grew significantly (P<0.01) faster than the Suphanburi population. The
samutprakan population survived significantly (P<0.05) lower than those of the other two
populations. The strains comparison also investigated in the hatchery strains such as in red
tilapia and common carp. Pongthana et al. (2005) studied growth and salinity tolerance of four
red tilapia strains (Thai red, Taiwanese red, Stirling red, and Malaysian red). The Taiwanese
red tilapia strain survived best and had highest yield, while the Malaysian red tilapia strain
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survived lowest and had lowest yields in 30 ppt. seawater. The Malaysian red tilapia strain had
the highest mean specific growth rate, while the Stirling strain had the lowest mean specific
growth rate. Phaukgeen et al. (2005) and Suwittayaporn et al. (2005) compared aquacultural
traits among four strains of red tilapia in cages. The four strains were Uttaradit, Phitsanulok,
Bureram and Chumporn. The red tilapia Chumporn strain weighted 23, 32 and 34% more
than those of the Bureram, Phitsanulok and Uttaradit, respectively (P<0.05). However, there
were no difference in survival rate. Thus, the males red tilapia Chumporn strain weighted 11,
52 and 20% more than those of the Bureram, Phitsanulok and Uttaradit, respectively (P<0.05).
The males tilapia Chumporn strain survied better than those of the Bureram, Phitsanulok and
Uttaradit, respectively (P<0.05). Phaukgeen et al. (2005) studied aquacultural traits of
selected and unselected strain of Labio rohita when they have been reared in earthen ponds for
11 months . In the first 6 months, growth, food conversion and survival rate of the selected
strain were significant 45, 14 and 5% better than those of the unselected strain, respectively
((P<0.05). In the 11 months, growth and food conversion rate of the selected strain were
significant 23 and 7 % better than those of the unselected strain, respectively ((P<0.05).
Genotype-environment interaction or variation in response on specific genotype under
different aquaculture conditions is another issue to be considered in strain comparison.
Depending on the type of the interaction, the strain can be classified as “general purpose”
stock which perform moderately well in all culture conditions, or “special purpose” stock
which exhibit a desirable performance in specific conditions (Falconer, 1981).
An example of genotype-environment interaction for growth rate was found in
common carp (Wohlfarth et al., 1983). They compared the growth rate of three crossed groups
of common carp; European X European, Chinese X Chinese and European X Chinese, in five
different environments. The results illustrated that the growth rate of the Chinese carp was
better than the European carp when poultry manure was used as fertilizer and the stocking
density was high, while European carp performed better when artificial feed was
supplemented. The hybrids performed better than the others in most of the cases except at low
stocking density. Similar genotype-environment interaction on growth rate was found in the
case of growth comparison between Hungarian F1 hybrid and Thai common carp. Jala et al.
(1997) investigated growth of Hungarian strain of common carp under two different
environmental conditions (concrete and earthen ponds) against the Thai strain. In the concrete
pond environment, the Hungarian strain was 69% larger than the Thai strain at the age of 18
month. On the other hand, the growth difference cannot be detected in the earthen pond
condition in which environment can be lesser controlled than the concrete pond. In addition,
significant genotype-temperature interaction in rainbow trout growth was reported by Mckay
et al. (1984). Iwamoto et al. (1986) tested growth of three rainbow trout strains with six
possible crosses in twelve different combinations of feeding regimes. Genotype-environment
interaction was small although it was significant.
However, genotype-environment interaction has been found to be of little or no
consequence in some cases. Gunnes and Gjedrem (1978) found only small variance
component of genotype-environment interaction when the growth of Atlantic salmon from
many rivers was compared. There was no evidence of genotype-environment interaction in
growth study of silver carps (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) from hatchery stocks and two
river stocks in China (Li et al., 1987). They concluded that in the choice of a strain (silver
carp) for hatchery purposes, the fish from the Changjiang river population were
recommended. Even though genotype-environment interaction was small and not present in
some cases, the breeder should not generalize, and must test for this in every case. If there is
no interaction, the breeder can produce “general purpose” strain for all farms. On the other
hand, if it does occur “specific purpose” strains are needed.
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II Mating system
There are two ways to change the genetic constitution in a population. The first is
inbreeding which results in harmful effects on reproductive rate. The second is well known to
plant and animal breeders as heterosis through crossbreeding. The application of these
methods in aquaculture will be discussed.
1. Inbreeding
The mating between individuals which are more closely related than random mating is
defined as inbreeding. Population in aquaculture stock is mostly finite. The number of
individual is limited by time and facilities. Thus, the degree of inbreeding is based on number
of spawners in each generation. It is believed that using a small number of spawners will
cause inbreeding depression indicated by low viability , low survival, low growth rate, low
egg production and high occurrence of abnormalities. Such inbreeding depressions have been
observed in fish and molluses such as in rainbow trout (Aulstad and Kittelsen, 1971; Kincaid,
1976a and b, 1983; Gjerde et al. 1983) Atlantic salmon
(Ryman, 1970). brook trout
(Salvelinus fontinalis) (Cooper, 1961; Davis, 1976), brown trout (Salmo trutta) (Davis, 1976).
common carp (Moav and Wohlfarth, 1968). T. mossambicus (Ch’ang, 1971), channel catfish
(Bondari, 1984), zebra danio (Brachydanio rerio) (Piron, 1978) and the American oyster
(Crassostrea virginicia) (Longwell and Stiles, 1973). An example where inbreeding
depression did not occur is the Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas) (Lannan, 1980).
Tave (1986) pointed out that although inbreeding in fish reduced productivity, the
breeder can apply inbreeding to produce inbred lines which will be tested for hybridization to
produce F1 hybrids that show heterosis, inbreeding populations can still produce good
offspring even though depression occurs. The depression has been found from various
genotype and population means, but outstanding individuals are still produced. These
outstanding animals should be kept for selective breeding purposes because these individuals
consist of more desirable alleles and are deteriorate allele free.
However, the farmer usually prefers low inbreeding depression since he produces
individuals for an immediate market. The producing of inbred lined lines should be carried out
in laboratories of government or universities rather than in those of private sectors.
The inbreeding depression is indicated from an inbreeding coefficient ( F).
Inbreeding coefficients need to be estimated. based on this estimate the farmer can produce a
design to manage his stock. The formula is
F=1/2Ne or F=1/8Nm +1/8Nf (Falconer, 1981)
where F= inbreeding coefficient, Ne = effective population size, Nm= number of male
parents, Nf= number of female parents. This formula is not generally of practical application
in aquaculture. This is because the farmer spawns fish many times and the number of
spawners may vary from time to time, season to season and year to year. Farmers adds new
mature fish in brooder ponds each year, and age and size of brooders become mixed up.
Therefore, the effective population size has to be estimated based on the aquaculture system.
Doyle and Talbot (1986 ) developed a formula to estimate effective population size according
to an aquaculture systems in Asia. The formula is modified from Hill (1979) and defined as
1/Ne = 1/16 NfL(2+Vr) +1/16NmL(2+Vm)
where L= approximate length of the effective generation, Vf and Vm =variance of replacement
success for each sex calculated separately. This formula has been applied to estimate the
inbreeding rate of Indian major carps, catla (Catla catla), rohu (Labeo rohita) and mrigal
(Cirrhina mrigala) in two farms in India (Eknath and Doyle, 1985a and b). The estimate of
inbreeding rates in both farms was 1-3% per year.
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Consequently, inbreeding rate in aquaculture system should be estimated before
genetic improvement programs are applied since the depression of stock may not be caused by
inbreeding.
2. Crossbreeding
Crossbreeding techniques can be used to improve productivity when non-additive
genetic variance is large. There are four possible uses of crossbreeding. They are as follows:
2.1 It can be applied when heritability is either large or small. When heritability is
small, crossbreeding is more efficient than selection.
2.2 It can be used in the final stage of selection program when all desirable alleles are
fixed by selection. Crossing between selection lines will increase production.
2.3 New strains can be produced.
2.4 Mono sex offspring can be produced.
The main purpose of crossbreeding is to produce superior hybrid offspring which have
better genotype than their parents. However, the superior performance could be due to nonadditive genetic variance. Only particular crosses will achieve this goal. This is termed “hit-ormiss” production of superior hybrids (Tave,1986). The breeder should be more precise in
applying hybridization techniques in order to produced superior (“hit”) – F1 hybrids. The used
of karyotype analysis, allozyme and DNA electrophoresis analysis and appropriate statistical
techniques in experimental design will be used to predict the success of crossbreeding. The
important point of crossbreeding is that the F1 hybrids cannot produce the best genotype in the
next generation. The breeder should maintain inbred line to produce the best F1 hybrids.
A number of studies have indicated success of inter and intra species hybridization in
salmonids (Ayles, 1974; Refstie and Gjedrem, 1975; Chevassus, 1979; Ord et al., 1976 and
Purdom, 1976). Hybrids of Arctic char male X Atlantic salmon female were found to have a
higher growth rate than the parents (Refstie and Gjedrem, 1975). Ord et al. (1976) reported that
the development of disease resistance by crossbreeding is more practical in salmonids. They
found that the cross between rainbow trout and coho salmon had high resistance to viral
Haemorrhagic septicaemia. Ihssen (1973) found high tolerance of heat in a cross between
brook trout and lake trout. However, improvement in survival salmonids cannot be relied on
crossbreeding (reviewed by Chevassus, 1979).
Hybridization was used to improve the resistance of viral disease in channel catfish by
Plumb et al. (1875). Some hybrids of channel catfish improve yield by 10 to 80% (Guidice,
1966; Yant et al., 1976 and Chappell, 1979). Horn (1981) and Dunham et al. (1983) found an
improvement in egg production by hybridization. Long-term genetic improvement program of
common carp have been carried out in Krasnodar Region, North Caucassus, Rassia by the
group of scientist leading by Kirpichnikov (Kirpichnikov et al., 1993). The work aimed to
improve common carp stocks for resistance to dropsy, a very serious infections disease. The
hybrid stock, UR (a crossbred scale Ukrainian-Ropsha carp) appeared to be most resistant. In
addition, the reciprocal crossbred between UR and local stock had some advantage on survival
and growth rate.
Under the intensive culture, the Hungarian hybrid was superior larger than the average
value of its parents. At the 12th month of rearing, the average growth of the hybrid was 8 and
30 % by length and weight better than those of the mid parent values, respectively (Uraiwan et
al., 2000). The growth comparisons of the hybrid Hungarian-local and the other strains under
intensive culture showed the superior of the Hungarian-Pitsanulok-Khon Kean backcross
hybrid (BC1-P31-P-K) which is average 35% (in weight) over than those of the local strain
(Khon Kea). On the other hand, the difference is not statistical significant in the farm . These
results illustrate the specific ability on growth rate of common carp strains. There is difference
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between body shape of 6 strains when the truss morphometric of theses strains were tested by
multivariate analysis (P-value<0.01).
Consequently, crossbreeding should be applied with selection program. Selection
procedure is used to select desirable alleles, and develop purebred. Then, hybridization can be
applied to find the superior hybrid between purebred lines.
Broodstock management and breeding plans
1. Broodstock management
Broodstock management refers to the aggregate of methods that the farmer uses to
handle his animals in the farms. These methods include feeding, spawning and culling animals
under aquaculture conditions. Management practices can be defined in terms of genetics as
“domestication selection” which can be analyzed as a type of natural selection (Doyle, 1983).
Doyle(1983) reviewed observations of animal breeders who had recognized the changing
physiology and behavior of animals due to domestication selection in aquaculture condition;
in trout (Vincent, 1960, Reisenbichler and Mclntyre, 1977; Ryman and Stahi, 1980). In carp
(Wohlfarth et al. , 1975; Moav and Wohlfarth, 1975). In channel catfish (Burnside et al.,
1975; Broussard and Stickney, 1981) and in tropical aquarium fishes (Gordon, 1957).
Appropriate estimations of genetic change by domestication selection are defined in terms of
selection differential and selection intensity by Doyle (1983). He gave examples of strong
domestication selection on growth of five species reared under domestic conditions: brook
trout (Salmo trutta), freshwater prawn, Gammarus (Gummarus lawrencianus), lobster
(Homarus spp.) and plaice (Pleuronectes platessa). He concluded that selection by
domestication was very strong in these examples, and that it would lead to genetic change.
Selection intensity on economic traits can be very high in the hatchery environment, but this
selection intensity might be in a different direction from the artificial selection goal.
Therefore, broodstock management studies should be included into the selective breeding
programs. Furthermore, the broodstock management program should be the first genetic
research priority.
The farmers usually manage two selection steps in their hatcheries/farms, the first is
the selection of the “largest size” fingerling during nursing period before the first selling, and
the second is the selection of “largest size” mature fish that remain in the pond after the
harvest period. This selection procedure is similar to mass selection to increase growth of
hatchery stock. However, the procedure may not be appropriate for some species such as
tilapia, puntius and giant freshwater prawn. Fingerlings growing in the same pond have
different ages and hatching times. Thus, animals which are the “largest size” is because they
are older and consume a lot of food than the others. If the selection criteria base on this
procedure, the farmers cannot produce superior progeny. In addition, the selection for “largest
size” fingerling will lead to the inbreeding depression. The example of this matter was the
work of Kamonrat (1996). In the case of puntius breeding in government fisheries stations,
Kamonrat (1996) reported that the “largest size” puntius fingering from the same pond were
distributed from parents 50% of spawners in each spawning. Therefore, selection for “larger
size” fingerling to produce spawner will face the inbreeding problem one time of the random
fingerling.
The second mode of selection after harvest period will not lead to genetic
improvement. This is because the fish that remaining in the pond after harvest time are slow
growth and have been culture longer than the others. This is found in the case of tilapia,
common carp and freshwater prawn cultures ( Doyle et al., 1983, Wongsaengchan, 1985 and
Sriputinibondh, 1988). The above management will result to spawning different generations
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and it can cause the parent-offspring cross which lead to inbreeding problem. This will affect
on growth and survival rate especially for the species which have short generation length such
as tilapia, puntius and freshwater prawn.
2. Breeding plans
The recommended management approaches are:
1. The farmer should record pedigree of his stock and know the history of some
important traits such as growth and disease resistance.
2. The farmer should start the base population from the best strain that suitable for his
farm. The number of base population should not lest than 50 pairs. In the case of puntius
spawning ratio is 3 males to one female, the spawning should be set up into 50 sets (each set
include 3 males to one female).
3. Separate the selected line (improved line) from the unselected population.
4. Avoid breeding between full-sib/half-sib families.
5. Separate spawners according to their age to avoid breeding between parents and
offsprings.
6. Do the selection for spawners before sell.
3. Specific breeding strategies to avoid inbreeding
To minimize the inbreeding depression rate in aquaculture system, the following
procedures should be considered.
1. Use at least 50 spawners each sex, in the case of Thai silver barb, one mate pair
consists of 3 males and one female which distributes 50 mate pairs or use 25 mate pairs with
3 male and 2 females in each mate pair. Collect fingerling from each mate pair to produce new
spawners.
2. Use marking technique such as pit tag, to identify spawners, and avoid breeding
between brother-sister and offspring-parent crosses.
3. Avoid breeding spawners that come from different generations.
References:
Aulstad, D. and Kittelsen, A. 1971. Abnormal body curvature of rainbow trout
(Salmo garidneri) inbred fry. J. Fish Res. Board Can., 28:1918-192
Bondari, K. 1984. Growth comparison of inbred and randombred catfish at different
temperatures. Proc. Ann. Conf. Southeast. Assoc. Fish Wild. Agen. 35(1981):547-553.
cited by Tave, D., 1986. Genetics for Fish Hatchery Managers. AVI Publishing
Company. Inc. Westport. Connecticus 299 pp.
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