Fodder Production

II semester fodder production

Fodder Production

Introduction

Bhutan is traditionally a land of grazers. The area of the country can roughly be divided into forest 60%, pasture 6%, arable land 1.2% and unproductive land 32.5%.

Bhutan, as all Himalayan countries is very poor in soil resources. Its pastures are one of the most important resources it country has. About

90% of its people depend to varying degree on livestock activities. The climate and topography allows only limited increase in agriculture production whereas there is big potential in the animal husbandry production, assuming that the fodder resources are being developed.

Compared to agriculture, grassland farming has many vital advantages for the country.

1.

Soil conservation through erosion control, control of forest fire, cycling of nutrient etc.

2.

High productivity inspite of the difficult topography.

3.

High value of products which makes transportation cost important.

(cost of freight from north to south from agriculture is approx.30-

50% value of the product compare to 5-10% in livestock.

Due to this advantage part of the land used for cultivation and all the shifting cultivation land may once be turned into permanent pasture land or ley farming.

Developing fodder resources involves the following points.

 Improving the better management of permanent grassland.

 Ley farming.

 Increase the use of fodder trees and shrubs.

For the individual farmer one or the other may have more importance depending on topography, climate and land distribution. For the whole of

Bhutan all the three are important.

Few exotic plants will be required, mainly grasses and legumes. Grazing will be cheapest available fodder. It can also be of high quality sufficient to feed cows producing 20 litres of milk per day.

Big constraint is the climate and mineral deficiency in the soil( P). In different climatic zones different method of establishment makes works complicated. The Animal Husbandry Department and extension people

Kuenga T / handout 1 17/04/20

II semester fodder production are facing an important but extremely difficult task in initiating and guiding the farmers towards development of the fodder resources.

Present fodder situation

Bhutan has a livestock unit of 232,000 plus ( including cattle, yak, horse, sheep and goat). Approximately 765,000 MT of dry matter are required to feed the entire livestock per year. It is estimated that this need is presently covered as following.

Permanent pasture land

Grazing of land under shifting cultivation

44%

15%

Fodder trees

Crop residues

Improved pasture

Concentrates

20%

0.5%

20%

0.5%

The permanent pasture can roughly be catagorized into the following regions.

Subtropics 300-2000m

Wet side usually dominated by broadleaved forest (shorea spp, castanopsis spp, quericus spp). In the places like Samtse, S/ jongkhar,

Trongsa and Zhemgang.

Dry site dominated by pinus rixburghi and cymbopogon flexuosus cover (

Wangdi, Punakha, Mongar and Tashigang.

Temperate 2000-3200m

Dry site dominated by Themeda spp, chrysopogon spp, pinus wallichiana cover. Wet site dominated by bamboo cover( Trongsa, Sha and

Bumthang)

Alpine Above 3300m

Wet site dominated by bamboosa spp, polygonum spp and rhododendron spp.

The climate in all the regions are suitable for fodder production. However there will be a bottleneck during winter months as the growth in all the regions will be limited either lack of temperature or moisture.

Fallow land is used though out Bhutan as grazing land. Depending on the climate and topography, part of the shifting cultivation land may be turned into permanent pasture and the remaining area used as ley farming. Cultivation on the fallow land will fetch additional feed and at the same time improve the land for the succeeding crops.



As fodder trees, different species of the fillowing genus are mainly used.

Ficu, Bambusa, quericu, salix etc.

Grasses

Most of the fodder plants belong to the families of grasses and legumes.

In the natural flora of Bhutan many grass species can be found.. species like Argopyron, Agrostis, Eragrostis, Bromus, Poa,etc. However, only few are considered good for fodder plant. Other grasses are grown for their grains, such as paddy, wheat, barley and maize.

The general structure of grass( after R.J Moilroy ’76)

The stem of the grass, bearing the leaves and flower head, is termed as culm. It is cylindrical and often hollow except at the nodes or joints which are of solid tissue. The hollow portion between the node are internodes. In few grasses the basal inter node may be swollen or bulbous. The nodes form the part of attachment of the leaves, which are arranged in to two rows alternating on opposite sides of the stem.

The upper expanded part is the leaf or the lamina and the basal part which embrace the stem is the sheath. The leaf blade often widens at the base into a ledge like process or may form earlike projections on either sides. The later are termed auricles. At the point where the blade forms the sheath there is usually a membranous out growth called ligule .

The production of new stem or shoots within the axils of older leaves is the normal method of branching in grasses and is called tillering. If the stem grow up within the leaf sheath of the older leaves, dense tuft of foliage are produced( intra-vaginal mode of growth). If the new shoot pierce the sheath near to their point of origin and grow out horizontally or obliquely( extra-vaginal mode of growth) loose or open tufts result.

Roots arise adventiously from the lowest node or nodes of the stem and are this and fibrous. In the case of certain perennial grasses (chloris gayana), the roots are produced at every node of a surface creeping stem or stolon. In certain grasses roots arise fro the nodes of under ground creeping stem or rhizomes (pennisetum perpureum).

The flower head or the inflorescence, which is terminal on the stem is frequently a panicle consisting of cluster of spreading branches terminated by long structure called spikelets. These are composed of one or more flowers with enveloping scales that conceal the flowers from


II semester fodder production view except at flowering stage. Alternatively the spikelets may be stalked directly on the main axis, when the flower head is a raceme or borne on the main axis itself, when the flower head is known as spike.

The small flower when bisexual consists of one carpel and three or more stamens. The later have long, slender filaments bearing long anthers.

The ovary which be glabrous or hairy bears two divergent feathery stigmas. The flowers of annual grass are generally self sterile and cross pollinated by agency of wind.

The naked fruit or grain is called caryopsis. It is one seeded with the pericarp fused into testa(seed coat) and consist of the embryo together with its store of endosperm for nurishment of the developing seeding.

The embryo consists of primary shoot (plumule) and primary root

(radicle) and often not applied not only the naked fruit but also to the entire spikelet or even to a group of united spikelets.

Grasses are suitable as herbage plants for grazing by livestock or for mowing for the following reasons.

 Reproduction of fresh shoots by tillers provide a means of recovery from cutting or grazing.

 New tissues produced during growth arises chiefly at the base of the leaves where it is least likely to be damaged by cutting or grazing.

 Many grasses maintain continuous growth interrupted only by periods of drought or cold.

 Many grasses spread by rhizomes or stolon which readily forms adventitious roots and give rapid ground coverage.

 The root system binds the soil particles together forming a sod and brings to the surface layers nutrients that have been leached into the subsoil by heavy rainfall.

Exotic grass for Bhutan

First exotic plants were introduced to Bhutan in the seventies only, mainly on the following places: Samtse, Thimphu, Gogona and

Bumthang. Our experience is therefore very limited and we have to a great extent rely on the work done in other countries.

From the limited experience in Bhutan and the reports from the other countries following species can be considered as well suited.

Alpine : Red fescue



Temperate: rye

Subtropical: seteria, napier.

Tall fescue, cocks foot, Italian

Kikiyu, chloris gayana, guinea grass,

Legumes

In all fodder development works, legumes plays the major role as they enrich the soil with nitrogen and produce highly digestible and protein rich fodder.

The family of legume is one of the biggest in the plant kingdom. Almost all plants are used as fodder belongs to the sub- family papilionoidese.

Many species can be found in the natural flora of Bhutan. Such species belong to the genus Astragalus, desmodium, lespedeza, vicia etc. Other legume are grown as pulses or vegetables. Most of the legumes produce nodules on their roots in which bacteria colonies live in symbiosis with the host plant.

The structure of leguminous plant.( after Bogdan ’77)

The papilionoideae sub-family includes trees, shrubs, woody laines and herbs. Herbaceous legumes can be erect, sub-erect or creeping and also climbing by means of twinning stems often supported by means of tendrils developed instead of terminal leaflets. Such as species of vicia or lathyrus, are relatively rare in the tropica. Some species vary in habit and they can be bushy, prostrate or climbing cultivars of the same species. In some species leaves can be simple but they are usually compound and a large number of species, including most of the cultivated legumes, have trifoliolate leaves. In a number of other species, the leaves are paripinnate( terminating in a pair of leaflet) or imparpinnate ( terminating in a single leaflet). There is often a pair of stipules at the base of the petiolules which in some species are fused with the low portion of petiole. Leaflet can be sessile or have petiolues which can have stepels, usually small and very narrow at it base. Young


II semester fodder production seedling have two cotyledons, the first true leaf to appear is usually simple with one leaflet, but further leaves are trifoliolate or pinnate. The plant usually have a well developed tap root penetrating deep into soil and in some species side roots can be thickened and serve as strong organs. In prostrate forms the creeping stem can root at the nodes but those roots are relatively shallow.

Rhizobium Bacteria

The rhizobium bacteria living on the roots of the legumes can fix the atmospheric nitrogen and make it available to the plants. So, legumes are permanent nitrogen factories. The quantities of nitrogen fixed in a legume field can go up to 200 kg N ( equal to 260 kg urea) per acre in a year. Grasses grown with legume can benefit highly from this nitrogen. In crop rotation, first crop after legume can still get good quantity of nitrogen which is left in the soil.

If a legume is newly introduced in an area the seed have to be inoculated with bacteria, as legume will show good performance only in presence of bacteria. Different group of legume have different strains of bacteria.

Only the right strain used will be successful.

The experience so far indicates that:

 Inoculation of lucerene, clover, lotus major and crown vetch is an absolute must. Any attempt to introduce any of these species will fail without inoculation .

 Inoculation of desmodium, glycine, stylo helps to hasten their development and should when ever possible be done.

If inoculation is successful nodules should be found on young plants 2-4 weeks after germination. Reddish, pink coloration of cross section of nodules is considered as a proof of effective nodulation.

Inoculation

Three different methods can be used to add proper bacteria strain to the germinating seed.

 Broadcasting soil from a field where same legume was grown before. This is the oldest method. It is still used under certain circumstances.



 Using of fresh nodules collected from plants of the same group. This method is safe but rather labour consuming. To inoculate 10 kg of seeds 20-30 gm nodules are required. These nodules are crushed and mixed with sugar and water and mixed thoroughly with seed.

Seed should be sown immediately as fresh nodules bacteria have only short life (4-7 days)

 Using peat inoculant made in laboratories. Depending on how reliable, using peat inoculant is the best method of inoculating legume seed. Usually 200-400 gm peat inoculant is required for 10 kg seed.

Following points are important …… wasted.

Remembe

r

 Legume seeds of exotic species sown without inoculation are

 Only bacteria of the proper group will be successful. Some legumes like lotus are only able to use bacteria from nodules of the same species.

 Bacteria die if they are exposed to direct sunlight. Therefore, never die inoculant in the sun. seeds should be sown towards evening or cloudy days.

 Peat culture is often spoiled due to unproper handling or storage.

Only use peat when quality if confirmed.

Seed peleting or coating

To protect seed and bacteria after inoculation, seeds are mixed with some special glue( gum Arabic) and then covered with thin layer of finely powdered material, usually lime or rock phosphate.

Advantage of seed coating

Protect seed and bacteria from environmental effects such as sunlight, drought, and soil acidity.

Inoculated seed can be stored for longer time. ( up to1 month)



Exotic legumes

Recommended legumes for our country.

Alpine White clover

Temperate White clover, red clover, lucerene, lotus

Subtropical Desodium, stylo, glycine,

Improvement of permanent pasture

Many part of Bhutan can be used as permanent grass land. Such are steep slopes, regions with heavy rainfall ( where cultivation of other crops is not possible) and areas above 10,000 feet. Such land are traditionally used as pastures. But neither the productivity nor the quality of these pasture was ever cared by any stakeholders. The cattle were left completely at the mercy of nature. The only step taken by farmer towards improving his pasture was by burning the dry plants during winter, causing high damage to the forest.

By improving these pasture a big potential can be activated. There are three main points which will help to increase the productivity and the quality of pasture. a) Clearing from stones and unwanted bushes and trees. b) Introducing legume with application of phosphates. c) Management.



Clearing of bushes and trees and stones.

The first step in pasture improvement should be clearing away of unwanted bushes, stones and trees. Areas with stone covered and bushes are unproductive. Trees limit their growth in their vicinity due to competition for nutrient and light. By clearing pasture from bushes and stone and trees an increase yield of 50-100% can be expected.

To avoid misunderstanding there should be clear demarcation between the pasture and the forest. On steep slope bushes and trees should be partially removed to prevent erosion.

Introduction of legume

There is no suitable legume present in the native flora of Bhutan. The introduction of legume is therefore essential. So far mainly white clover was used for this purpose. With its adaptability to wide range of soil and climatic conditions it proved an excellent legume with the provision of having enough moisture and phosphate.

White clover

Lucerne

Desmodium

Glycine

Stylo

7000-13000 ft

2000-9000 ft for extreme dry climate

3000-7000 ft site with sufficient moisture

6000- ft dry to humid site

4000 ft on dry sites and poor soils

The following methods can be used for introducing legume.

Direct sowing without tilling

Can be recommended for white clover. Sowing of inoculated white clover seed at peak rainy season (July) together with application of phosphate.

Labour is required only for sowing and fertilizing. There fore, it is cheap method and however, can be applied in only humid areas especially above 10000 ft. If the pasture is heavily stocked for few days immediately before sowing, the success of establishment can be increased.

Input per acre

Super phosphate

White clover

Labour

200 kg

1 day

2 kg



Transplanting

Can be used for : almost all legume

Transplanting is the surest method of introducing legume. It will never fail. Plants ( at least 3-4 month old) are transplanted in distance of approximately 3-4 ft x 4 ft (2700-4900 plants per acre) only where legumes to be planted need to be dug. Fornthis method no seed and only limited quantity of fertilizer is required. It ca be done from the beginning of the rainy season till the end of August.

Inputs need per acre

Super phosphate

Labour

50-100 kg depending on planting distance

10-20 days

All legumes have the ability to spread by stolon( rooting system) or rhizomes. The space between the plants will there fore be coverd by them with in 1-2 years after planting. The grasses like Tall fescue, kikiyu, cocks foot, Italian rye grass can be transplanted along with legume

Tilling and sowing

This method has the advantage of the fact that better grasses can be introduced along with legumes. It is only possible method for introducing lecerne, stylo and red clover. Success can best be obtained if the grass and legume is under sown in sweet buck wheat . It is very expensive way of pasture improvement and can be used lands which can easily be cultivated.

Input needed per acre

Super phosphate

Legume seed

200 kg

2-5 kg

Grass seed

Labour

4-5 kg

15-20 days

The best method would be to use a cover crop. Seed should be sown immediately afer last tilling( hoeing, levelling and crushing of clods) . No cover or light cover of the seed is required. As most legumes and grasses develop slowly compared to weed, it will often be necessary to remove the first growth consisting of weeds by slashing / cutting. Slashing should be done carefully at height where sown species are not harmed too much.



During the dry and cool season (sep-may) there is a strong pressure from stray cattle on any greenery. Pasture where exotic plants introduced should be protected by a fence. In the first year after sowing or transplanting exotic fodder plants grazing has to done carefully. No grazing should be done after heavy rainfall. With this method grasses can be sown together with legume.

The following grasses can be recommended

Red fescue

Cocks foot

11000-14000 ft

6000 –11000 ft

6000-11000 ft

3000-6000 ft

6000 ft

4000 ft

Tall fescue

Kikiyu

Setaria

Guinea

Grazing Management

R.J Moilroy ( introduction to tropical grassland husbandry) list the following four objectives of grazing management.

 To maintain high production of good quality forage for longest possible period.

 To achieve favourable balance between herbage species.

 To achieve efficient utilization of the forage produced.

 High animal production.



Although maximum yields of dry matter are obtained when pasture is harvested at or near maturity, nutritive value and digestibility of the forage at this advanced are low. Young growth with a high production of to stem is of highest quality with maximum content of crude protein and minimum crude fiber. Management should be regulated to prevent most of the plants from flowering and if this cannot be achieved by grazing, cutting with scythes may be done. Surplus forage removed by mowing should be conserved as silage or hay.

Young rapidly grown herbage may induce bloat in the grazing animal, white clover is the most dangerous specie. Where white clover is used a grass content of over 50% should be aimed to prevent bloat.

Frequent defoilation reduces growth and root development, and lead to replacement of more palatable and desirable species with poor quality species and weeds.

To achieve the above objectives the following strategies are followed.

 Start the grazing before the plants reach full flowering stage( especially grasses)

 Allow stock to graze on the same plot only for short period.( optimum one day)

 The pasture need arrest period of 25-60 days depending on species and climate.

Plants may be classified in three groups depending on their rest period.

 Indifferent of limited requirement ( 20-30 days) : white clover, perennial rye, kikiyu.

 Medium (30-50) days) : desmodium, glycine, cocks foot, tall fescue, setaria, guinea grass

 Long ( 45-70 days) : Lucerne, crown vetch.

Dasmodium, setaria and Lucerne should be grazed only about 10 cm from the ground.

Gazing System

Continuous grazing

This is the extensive grazing system in which the stock remains on the same pasture for prolonged period. The stocking rate is relatively low.

Continuous grazing is the normal practice in Bhutan. Under continuous grazing specially if the grazing pressure is high, many of the fodder plants cannot survive since the rest period is not given. Continuous


II semester fodder production grazing is also said to increase the infestation of tick and helminths, a major problem in Bhutan. It will be difficult and in many places impossible to change to more intensive system mainly because of high cost involved in fencing. Pasture improvement with introduction of legumes and phosphate application should however, only be taken up when improved pasture can be grazed under a more appropriate grazing system

Rotational Grazing

Is more intensive grazing system. Under short grazing period, followed by long resting periods, plants gets more time to accumulate enough reserves in their roots to start vigorous re growth after grazing. Under this system the grazing area is sub-divided into paddock. 6-10 paddocks are required. Each paddock is grazed for a period of 4-5 days after which stock is moved on to next paddock. By the time last paddock is grazed, the first should be ready for grazing for the second time. In the period of fast growth ( June, July and August) excessive growth should be used for hay and silage making. Owing to the high cost on fencing rotational grazing will be economical on high producing pasture.

Tethering

Tether is the rope by which the animal is confined. Here the animals are fixed on a rope which allows them to graze only around the pole on which it is tethered. It also depends on the length of the rope. This is the best grazing system for small groups of animals. By changing the post 1-2 times a day the grazing period on a certain place is less than one day.

Animal will graze the area allowed to them very clean.

Cutting of un-grazed patches

There will always be patches left un-grazed. There can be different reasons.



 Plants around cow dung

 Plants which are over aged

 Weeds which are not liked animals

These patches will be more in number after every grazing. Weeds will get a chance to spread their seeds. Therefore, the dung should be spread and un grazed patches cut at least once a year.

Manuring

Through the droppings of the grazing animals parts of the nutrients taken by the plant are returned to the soil. There is a continuous cycle.

This dropping together with nitrogen fixed by the legumes and the potash available from the soil, minerals can cover the needs of the nitrogen and potash. There is always lack of phosphate which has to be met by

1.

Farm manure

2.

Compost

3.

Phosphate fertilizers

The need of phosphate is extremely high in the initial year. Once established there will be droppings because of high production and there fore less phosphate has to be applied.

Quantity needed per acre

1-2 years 45kg P2 O5 = 250 kg super phosphate or 15 MT Fym

The following years : 20kg P2 O5 =110kg “ or 6 MT Fym

Stocking rate

The stocking rate varied according to the quality of pasture. If winter feeding is included( preserved as silage or hay) the maximum stocking rate per acre is approx. 0.9cow /good permanent pasture and 1.4 cow for irrigated ley or pasture.

Leys



Cultivable land used temporarily for fodder production is called ley. Ley farming started in Europe using fallow land for growing red clover. The affects of the period of growing grass and legumes is positive in any rotation. Besides producing fodder it improves soil and controls weeds and pest.

The period of ley can vary from 1 to 6 years or more. As seeds are expensive and high skill is needed establish a ley, the aim should be to keep it for a minimum of 2 years. In the first step ley farming should be integrated into different shifting cultivation system where it can replace the fallow period. Shifting cultivation is widely practiced in most high subtropical regions.

Establishing Ley

Any land suitable for cultivation can be used as ley. The best method of establishing a ley is to under sow the grass and legumes seeds in another crop which is called cover crop.

Under sowing has the following advantages:

1.

No special cultivation is needed.

2.

Cover crop will produce a harvest.

3.

Cover crop will protect the germinating seed from strong sun.

4.

Competition of weeds will be limited.

The following crop can be used as cover crop. Buck wheat, maize., millet, barley, oats, etc.

Management of leys

The management of leys should be aimed to produce big quantities of high quality forage over the whole period. To achieve high productivity, proper cutting time, rest period and manuring should be done as in permanent pasture. If irrigation facilities are available the growing period can be extended through the winter especially in the lower region.



Fodder Crops

Fodder crop are seasonal fodder plants grown on cultivable land. They are usually annuals and give only one harvest. Other terms used are “ arable fodder crops or seasonal fodder”

Fodder crop will serve two main purposes.

Fill the gap between two main crops where land would be left fallow.

Produce additional forage for lean season.

All kinds of fast growing crops can be used, such as cereals, pulses etc.

As fodder crops give only few harvest the seed requirement will be high.

Only crops where seeds can be produced locally can be considered. So far only few proved to be useful in Bhutan.

Maize

Maize is a well known crop in Bhutan. It will make good fodder in the subtropical and temperate regions. It can be used for feeding green or silage making. Cultivation is similar to other cereals. However, tall and leafy cultivars should be recommended.

Turnip

Turnip is probably the widest used fodder crop in Bhutan. It is grown in temperate region through out the country. Partly used as vegetable and partly as winter feed for livestock.

Oats

This forage was being grown in small pocket areas of Paro. It was tried in many research farms and was proved to be promising winter forage for the livestock. The government is trying to propagate to all the region as it was found to be performing high in terms of productivity. Emphasis is being made to grow in all the Dzongkahgs where winter feeds are major problem.


Fodder Production

Fodder Production

Remembe

Related documents

Products

Support

Fodder Production