GEOPOLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS – VIETNAM, SINO-SOVIET SPLIT AND MIDDLE EAST
During what period did the geopolitical developments take place?
 Détente: think “shift from bi-polar world to a multi-polar world”, “improved” relations
 Neither side saw it as a permanent settlement, rather a mutually convenient time to resolve
other problems, without the threat of attack.
 Ideological divisions still existed.
Historian LeFeber states that by the mid 1950’s “each superpower believed that the future vitality of its
ideological, economic and strategic systems depended upon “winning” the 3rd world.”
Ideological – both the US & USSR wanted to spread their ideology and vision.
Economic – gains to be made. There were economic resources that both sides wanted, especially oil in
the Middle East.
Strategic – both sides wanted to prevent each other from spreading their influence.
VIETNAM WAR
Key terms:
 Containment
 Domino theory
 Sphere of influence
 War by proxy
 Nixon Doctrine
 Military parity
Why Vietnam?
 Like the Soviets, the US had come to accept existing spheres of influence. However,
communism seemed to be breaking new ground.
 Vietnam had been controlled by French colonists who were overthrown by the Vietminh 
they established a new French Socialist Gov.
 US government was concerned about Vietnam falling under Communist rule - shared
common border with China - “domino theory”
 Claimed it to be protecting weaker powers from communist expansion - portrayed as saviors
helping Vietnamese people.
 As war in Vietnam escalates, critics of US policy became more outspoken, causing a public
outcry on homefront  beginning of revisionist history.
 US began to realize it could not win; it was an internal conflict and they had failed to
understand the true the nature of the conflict.
 Arrogance of power: US was “losing its perspective on what is exactly within the realm of its
power and what is beyond it” - J. Fulbright.
 USA withdrew in 1973 - political unrest at home and the cost of the war became too much.
Why was it important? [Americans learn that they Must Not Fix Every Problem ]
 Military parity achieved by the Soviets while the US were fighting in Vietnam  now in a
position to negotiate with the USA on equal terms.
 Emergence of the Nixon Doctrine in 1969: abandonment of containment, stating that fighting
should be done by locals, not US troops, although US would still support opposition to
communism.
 Failure for US for the first time:
Politically – loss of prestige, didn’t display military superiority. The US recognised that it no
longer had the power to determine the policies of other states.
Economically - reduce military spending and realign unbalanced economy- Vietnam War has
placed huge strain on US economy, caused high inflation and budget deficit.
Socially – needed to focus on domestic unrest, such as the African-American civil rights
movements. People began to believe that USA did not have control of international issues and
that military activity did not always bring peace.
 End of the policy of containment: this had been the US policy since 1947 (Truman Doctrine) and
had dictated all foreign affairs. Containment had a huge cost for the US; great deal financially to
maintain the policy i.e. economically draining.
 Proxy war: one of the causes and features of détente; shows the superpowers dealing with each
other through Third World countries. Wars between communism and democracy; improve
prestige in the region through military assistance and aid.
SINO-SOVIET SPLIT
Key terms:
 Bi-polar/multi-polar world
 Brezhnev Doctrine
 Linkage
 Foreign policy
 Ideology
China and the Soviet Union
 Problematic history:
- Treatment towards China by Stalin in 1930’s and 1940’s: didn’t back communists.
- Both saw themselves as ‘leaders’ of the communist world; resented the others portrayal of
the ideology.
 Rapidly developing split between Communist China and the USSR, due to both interest and
ideological conflict.
 From 1950, USSR provided aid to recently formed People’s Republic of China; specifically with
technical aid for China’s industrial development.
 Mid 1950’s  Sino-Soviet relations began to deteriorate.
Mao Zedong denounced Khrushchev’s policies of de-Stalinisation.
 Khrushchev in turn denounced Mao’s sweeping social reforms.
 1959  USSR withdraws promise to help China develop nuclear weapons.
 1960  USSR withdraws all economic aid to China.
 USSR/China now openly hostile: Mao accused Khrushchev of betrayal Lenin’s ideals by endorsing
“peaceful coexistence.”
 Brezhnev announced ‘Brezhnev Doctrine’- gave USSR right to intervene in other communist
nations affairs. China perceived as direct threat to independence.
 Fighting on Siberian/ Manchurian border (1969) = each wanted to show off their military
superiority; discredit the other in the eyes of the world.
China and the US
 Both were concerned with the growing strength of the Soviets.
 This concern = China reconsidered previous foreign policy with the US, and wanted to re-engage
with America. Nixon also trying to improve relations.
 Nixon saw strategic value in a friendship with Chinese - believed rapprochement would allow
American leverage against the Soviets.
 1972 – signing of the ‘Shanghai communiqué,’ stating China and US both opposed hegemony
(i.e. Soviet domination)
 America’s relationship with China was a feature of détente.
Why was it important?
 The Sino-Soviet split led to an improvement in relations between the USA and China.
 The timing of the split was ideal for USA  took full advantage of the breakdown of relations in
the communist bloc.
 Pressure on USSR to better their relations with US and work toward détente so they would be
less vulnerable.
 It changed the balance of power- the US gained prestige and power.
 A reduction in the power and influence of the Soviets.
 It broke the United States’ obsession with anti-communist ideology.
 Kissinger believed in the policy of linkage: good relations with the Soviet Union would mean
they could put pressure on the USSR elsewhere.
 End of bi-polar world; emergence of a multi-polar world (new theatre for the Cold War).
THE MIDDLE EAST
Key terms:
 Proxy war
 Containment
 Economic warfare
 Nationalistic interests
What happened?




Source of conflict; signaled the beginning of end for détente.
Showed détente to be superficial.
Based on insecure foundations.
Situation in the Middle East in 1973 and 1974 and the Arab-Israeli War of 1973 demonstrated
the crumbling edifice of détente.
 Middle East was divided into US/Israel and USSR/Egypt, Syria.
Importance of the Middle East to both sides:
 The superpowers clashed in the Middle East for both economic and strategic reasons – each wanted to
exploit the resources of this region, and each also saw its potential for providing sites for military, air and
naval bases.
 USA tried to combat communism by sending aid to poor and undeveloped nations – aid ended up in the
hands of the rich rulers and the poor remained impoverished – easily attracted to communism.
 Soviet Union used financial aid to support sympathetic regimes – offered trade agreements and military
cooperation in hopes of friendship and cooperation in an attempt to secure loyalty.
USSR



Strategic/geopolitical significance: Iran,
Turkey and Afghanistan border Russia
Control and access to warm water ports and
naval facilities in the Mediterranean on the
Black Sea (Turkey)
Wanted oil from Iran – felt they deserves after
their wartime sacrifices
USA



Provides the West with oil
Concerned with controlling the Middle East
Stop Soviet control; example of containment
[LOOK BACK AT NOTES ON THE SUEZ CRISIS AND THE EISENHOWER DOCTRINE ]
Arab-Israeli Relations
 1967  Israel becomes concerned with growing Arab aggression; launches surprise attack on
surrounding Arab states. Defeats enemies and increases territory, which included a very larger
Palestinian population.
 1971  Anwar Sadat (Egyptian leader) offers full peace treaty in return for Israeli withdrawal
from Egyptian territory. Israel refuses.
 1973  Syria and Egypt launch surprise attack on Israel on holy Jewish day Yom Kippur; aid from
the USSR.
Yom Kippur War
 Arab attack began on 6th October; ceasefire on the 24th October.
 As the only democracy in the region, Israel had been America’s ally since its creation in 1948.
 President Nixon was furious with the violation of agreements under détente – Soviet Union had
known about the attack and not informed US.
 On the verge of direct confrontation until Brezhnev threatened to send in Soviet troops; ceasefire stopped this.
 Soviets violated the spirit of détente:
o Encouraged other Arab states to join in the fighting.
o Reinforced effort of Syria and Egypt with economic/military aid.
o Blocked efforts to arrange a cease-fire.
o Supported an Arab oil embargo of the United States and the West.
Significance of the crisis
 First time since CMC that the superpowers threatened to use force to ensure their ally would
prevail.
 US became annoyed at the Soviets; positioned themselves as the protector of Israel and the
leader for future Arab-Israeli negotiations.
 Relations eased when both sides agreed to the UN resolution of a peacekeeping force sent to
restore peace.
 Oil embargo on the US  severe shortages affected industrial output, heightened inflation and
sent economies into recession. This is called ‘economic warfare.’
 Conflict had the potential for nuclear confrontation between superpowers.
Iran
 Islamic revolution in February 1979
o Led by Muslim cleric Ayatollah Khomeini
o CIA had established the Shah to ensure cheap, reliable sources of oil to the West and to
ensure a pro-Soviet govt. didn’t get in power/stop those supplies.
o Shah was overthrown in the revolution; viewed a brutal dictator who survived through
the support of thee US (US ‘puppet’)
o US embassy in Tehran became rallying point for many militants – shouted for the
removal of foreign devils, death to Carter and the Shah.
 Iran Hostage Crisis
o November 1979: group of revolutionary Iranians took 66 hostages in the US embassy.
o Huge stand-off between the two nations began.
o US resisted using force, as militants had warned that all hostages would be killed if a
military solution was attempted.
o Reason for Carter’s loss of Presidency: failed rescue attempts made him look feeble.
o Final hostages were released in 1981, hours after Reagan was inaugurated.
o By 1979, détente was well and truly over.
Events in the Middle East
PERIOD
1948


Suez Crisis of 1956

1967 – Arab-Israeli
War
1973 – Yom Kippur
War
1978







1979

1980



1985

DESCRIPTION
USSR supplied arms to the new state of Israel to help it win the first Arab-Israeli war
Political pressure from American Jews then forced the USA back to Israel, so the Soviets
tried to befriend the Muslim countries e.g. Egypt
Sale of Soviet arms to Egypt prompted the USA to withdraw its economic aid from Egypt
– popular nationalist leader, Colonel Abdul Gamal Nasser, reacted by nationalising the
Suez Canal, which was owned by Britain and France – therefore Britain and France,
backed by Israel, invaded Egypt
US and the USSR used the UN to condemn the invasion; force the withdrawal of troops.
Policy of US aid to the Middle East began
USA backed Israel and the Soviet Union backed the Arabs
Neither superpower wanted to escalate the conflict
Arab nations placed an oil embargo on the USA
Reminded the US of how dependant they were on Middle Eastern oil
USA played a major role in trying to create peace in the Middle East, holding the Camp
David talks – led to signing of a peace treaty between Israel and Egypt in 1978
USA lost a long-standing ally when the Shah of Iran was overthrown by an anti-American
fundamentalist Islamic revolution
Iraq attacked Iran
US navy escorted oil tankers to protect them from attack and to keep shipping lanes
open in the Persian Gulf
USA more hostile towards Iran than to Iraq at this time because of Iranian treatment of
Americans during its revolution
Iran benefited from secret US arms shipments in order to raise money for Reagan’s war
against the Contras in Nicaragua
Summary
 Détente was the only logical solution to the growing power of the USSR and the economic
decline in the US.
 Emergence of a multi-polar world shifted the power balance of the superpowers.
 Vietnam was a military and political failure for the United States. American inability to contain
communism raised questions about the policy.
 New global players such as China began to emerge as potential US allies.
 USSR saw the US rapprochement with China as a sign of US weakness.
 Communism was not able to be contained, as African and South American countries adopted
Marxist ideology.
 The Middle East emerged as a region with tensions that could be exploited by both powers.
 The Middle East asserted its authority over the West through the oil embargo of 1973-74.
 Showed the superficial nature of détente and that it was based on unreliable and insecure
foundations.
 Détente was ultimately a failure, bringing new actors onto the world stage which in turn created
domestic political conditions.
 The Iran Hostage Crisis was an example of American decline, as was Vietnam. Brought down the
once mighty world power.