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edu.parkerreno.net
Comprehensive-ish
Biology Study Guide
Semester II, 2012-2013
Pages 3-10 contain content. Cover and page 2 contain a table of
contents and copyright information and do not need to be printed.
This guide provides a lot of information, but may be missing information
and is not a replacement for reviewing your notes.
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Table of Contents
Genetics ...................................................................................................................................................... 3
Punnett Squares .................................................................................................................................... 3
Protein Synthesis .................................................................................................................................. 4
Biotechnology ............................................................................................................................................ 5
Classification.............................................................................................................................................. 6
Evolution ..................................................................................................................................................... 7
Carbohydrates ........................................................................................................................................... 7
Respiration ................................................................................................................................................. 8
Photosynthesis .......................................................................................................................................... 8
The Cycles .................................................................................................................................................. 9
Water Cycle ............................................................................................................................................ 9
Carbon Cycle ......................................................................................................................................... 9
Nitrogen Cycle....................................................................................................................................... 9
Ecology, Populations, and Human Impact .......................................................................................... 9
Populations........................................................................................................................................... 10
Human Impact ..................................................................................................................................... 10
Feedback Loops ............................................................................................................................... 10
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Genetics
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Genetics is the study of ____ structure/ action AND the patterns of trait inheritance
from ________ to ________
In 1860 Gregor _______ discovered genetic principles in pea plants
o Studied thousands of crosses and their offspring
Trait Dominance:
o Some traits are _________ (it will mask the other trait, preventing its
expression)
o The _________ gene is not visible for a generation
Segregation
o For every trait, an organism has ____ genes, one from each ______
o Independent assortment: distribution of traits are random
Traits are written using letters, capitals represent the _________ and lowercase
represents the ____________. The capital is always written first
o Homozygous – the individual contains one allele for a trait
 TT = homozygous _________
 tt = homozygous _________
o Heterozygous – contains different alleles for a trait (Tt)
o Genotypes tell you the ______ ________ of the organism
o Phenotypes are the organism’s ___________
 Controlled by the genotype, TT -> tall, Tt -> tall, tt -> short
Punnett Squares
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Used to predict genotypic and phenotypic results of crosses
Mono- and dihybrid crosses
Complete the monohybrid cross, highlight homozygotes then underline which genotypes
will express the short phenotype.
T
t
T
t
See GENETICS – DIHYBRID CROSSES notes for dihybrid practice
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Protein Synthesis
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DNA Replication [review]
o CGATATCGCC
o __________
Polypeptides
o Composed of: ________ ________
o Function: enzymes/ proteins ______________________________
Three differences between DNA and RNA
o RNA is _______ stranded; DNA is ________ stranded
o RNA has _____ as a base instead of ________
o RNA contains _______ sugar; DNA contains __________ sugar
The three types of RNA:
o Type: name, function
o mRNA: _______, _____________________________
o tRNA: _______, ______________________________
o rRNA: _______, ______________________________
What is the Central Dogma?
o The ____-way flow of _________ from ____ -> ____ -> _________
o Uses _______, ________ (DNA to RNA), and _______ (RNA to protein)
o Replication vs Transcription
 Replication creates two, ________ of __NA
 Transcription replicates specific ______ and creates ___NA, can create
_____ copy/ copies
o Replication: occurs within ________, resulting _____ remains in nucleus
o Transcription: occurs within ________, resulting _____ leaves nucleus
 Advantages:
 Process: ___________ unzips DNA and creates ____ by pairing DNA
with free floating nucleotides. ______ replaces thymine in this stage.
o Translation: occurs in _______ at a ribosome, creates an __________
 Process: mRNA is brought to a ribosome (rRNA), where tRNA’s anticodons (codons are on the mRNA strand) match up and create the
amino-acid strand.
Codons and Amino Acids
o How many amino acids? _____
o Codons:
 Codons are on the _____ strand
 Anti-codons (complementary to codons) are on the _______
 Multiple codons can code for the same _________
 One ____ codon (AUG), three _____ codons (UAA, UAG, UGA)
 Stop codons do not _______________________
Mutations
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A change in the ____ when a base is incorrectly copied (usually in replication)
OR as a result of DNA damage because of ______________.
o If a mutation occurs in a ________ it can be passed to offspring; if a mutation
occurs in a _________ it will not be passed to offspring
o Types of Mutations:
 _______ mutations: the result is the same amino acid as before
 _______: one amino acid is changed and likely affects protein function
 _______: causes coding to terminate early, protein will not function.
Practicing the Process:
o Start with the DNA strand:
o TAC TAG GGC CCA CGA ATT
o Transcribe to mRNA [group into codons]:
o
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o
o
___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
o
o
___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
o
___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
Find matching anti-codons (tRNA)*:
Translate to amino acids (see codon chart):
Codon chart from the Wikimedia foundation and is part of the public domain.
Biotechnology
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Gel electrophoresis
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o
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o
o
o
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Separates macromolecules based on their rate of _________ under the influence
of an electric current
Mixture of nucleic acids are placed in wells, the gel is then placed in a aqueous
solution containing a buffer to complete a ____________
Charge is applied and molecules move based on _____ and ______ – the rate of
movement is inversely proportional to size (larger molecules move ______)
The higher the voltage, the ________the molecules travel
DNA and RNA are negatively charged and move towards the _______electrode
Pipette procedure
1. Select amount of liquid to be used DO NOT GO BEYOND THE RANGE OF
THE PIPETTE
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Attach a new tip to the pipette
Depress plunger to first stop
Insert into liquid and slowly release plunger
Remove from liquid and insert into desired destination
Depress plunger fully
REMOVE PIPETTE FROM LIQUID then release plunger
Dispose of pipette tip
Classification
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Taxonomy
o Classified in this order: Kingdom > _______ > _______ > _______ > _______ >
_______ > _______
o I remember this by: ____________________________________
o Bionomial nomenclature: ________ then _________ (e.g. Homo sapiens)
Species are able to __________ and produce ______________
Prokaryotes
o Eubacteria –
o Archeabacteria –
Eukaryotes
o Protists – Generally _______ and found in ______ (e.g. algae, phytoplankton)
o Fungi – Decomposers, eat ________ matter (e.g. mushrooms, mold, yeast)
o Plants – Photosynthetic
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Non-vascular = no ______ (e.g. moss, liverworts)
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Vascular = ________
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Seedless – use spores (e.g. ferns)
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Gymnosperms – “naked seed” (e.g. pine, fir, spruce, cedar)
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Angiosperms – “closed seed” (i.e. flowering plants: fruits and nuts)
o Animals – Reproduce sexually
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Evolution
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“The changes in various genes of a ________ over ________”
Evolution refers to ___________ not ___________ and changes are passed on to the
next generation
1809: Lamarck’s [Incorrect] Theory of Evolution
o ______________ characteristics can change over time
o If muscles are used, they grow stronger and these are passed to the next
generation
1858: Darwin and Wallace propose evolution is caused by ________ _________
o Characteristics that allow for survival are passed on (e.g. food shortages
cause giraffes with long necks to survive and breed)
Basics Tenets of Evolution
o Populations produce more _________ than the environment can support
o Overpopulation leads to competition (natural ___________)
o Variation in individuals is controlled by their genes and therefore inheritable
 Better adapted individuals pass on their characteristics and species
gradually change over ______________
Speciation
o When groups of a species adapt to different environments, they eventually
become new _________ and cannot _____________
Evidence of Evolution
o ________ show intermediate stages of evolution
o Vestigial Structures: present in an organism but _______________
o Homologous Structures: ________ structures in different organisms showing
they share a common ancestor (bat _______ have similar structures to other
mammals’ hand/ fins/ feet)
o Embryonic development: __________ of embryos at different stages of
development, but not in the adult stage of the species
o Shared or similar ________ code
Endosymbiosis
o One organism lies within the body of another and both benefit
o The theory proposes certain organelles (such as _________ and ___________)
came from free-living protobacteria/ prokaryotes
o Evidence:
 Mitochondria and chloroplasts replicate via _____________
 They have a membrane only shared by bacteria
 They have their own set of _____ outside of the nucleus
 They are the same size as their prokaryotic counterparts
 Start with the same amino acid as bacteria (unlike eukaryotic proteins)
Carbohydrates
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Sugars, end with the suffix ______
Produced by ________________
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Contain ________, _______, and ________
Monosaccharides (simple sugars)
o C___H____O____ – Glucose, Fructose, Galactose
o Animals get their energy from these
Disaccharides (two)
o Formed via _______ _________ synthesis of two monsaccharides
Polysaccharides (many sugars/ _________ carbohydrates)
o Chains of monosaccharides formed via dehydration synthesis
o Used for energy storage (starch) and support/ composition
o Broken into monosaccharides via __________(cut with water)
Storage Carbs: ________ (amylase) in plants, __________ in animals
Structural Carbs: ________ in plants, _________ in animals
Respiration
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__________ + ________  _______+________+_________
o Opposite of photosynthesis
 __________ does it, takes place in the _____________
1. Glycolysis: glucose broken down into two ________ _______ molecules, some ATP
2. Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle): pyruvic acid  CO2, some more ATP
3. Electron Transport Chain (ETC): Hydrogen released, forms water with oxygen
o Tons of ___ produced
 Anaerobic (without ________) vs aerobic (with ________)
o Anaerobic respiration (fermentation) occurs only in oxygen deprived
environments
o Byproduct is ________ and doesn’t produce as much ATP
Photosynthesis
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______+________+_______  _________+__________
o Opposite of _________ (woah cycles…)
o Done by autotrophs (producers)
Takes place in various parts of the _________
o Thylakoid: light is captured, ATP is made to start process
 Chlorophyll: captures the sunlight
o _______: glucose produced
o __________: used to capture/ release gasses such as CO2, H2O, O2
o Picture in answer key
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The Cycles
Water Cycle
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Evaporation:
Condensation:
Precipitation:
Transpiration: _______ ________ from plants to atmosphere
o ____ humidity  ____transpiration
o ____ temperature  ____ transpiration
o ____ wind  ____ transpiration
o To combat these factors, the stomata can ____ to release more water or close
to ________ it
Carbon Cycle
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All organisms return ____ to the atmosphere via respiration
Plants acquire CO2 through stomata and cycle it via __________
Decomposition recycles carbon to the soil and atmosphere
Combustion also creates CO2
Nitrogen Cycle
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N2 makes up 79% of our atmosphere but most organisms ________ obtain nitrogen
through the atmosphere
o Needed by plants and animals to create ________ and ____
Animals acquire nitrogen by eating ______
o Plants get nitrogen from nitrogen fixing/ nitrifying bacteria in the soil
o Bacteria creates usable ____
Denitrifying bacteria return N2 to the atmosphere via ________ respiration
Ecology, Populations, and Human Impact
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Ecology, “the study of where one lives”
Levels of organization
o Atom  ________  Cell  Tissue  ________ System  Organism 
_________ Community  Ecosystem  ________
o The Biosphere is the thin layer of earth and its atmosphere that supports life
An ecosystem is a community (many species that live together) and________
o Physical boundaries aren’t obvious, no ecosystem is completely ____
Abiotic factors:
Biotic factors:
Habitat: where a population lives
Community: all the interacting organisms in an area
Predation
Parasitism
Commensalism
Mutualism
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One organism eats the other
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The food chain shows the of energy through food consumption
All energy originates from the ____ (producers & photosynthesis)
Pyramids
o Energy: uses _____ (cal) or _______ (j)
o _______: uses kilograms, pounds, grams, etc
o Number: uses number of ______
Autotrophs create their own _____, heterotrophs eat other ________ for food
__________ make food (photosynthesizers) and are eaten by primary consumers
o Primary consumers are eaten by secondary consumers, and so on.
Populations
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Exponential (shape: _________) vs logistic (_____________) growth
Population density: # of _________ divided per _______(e.g. 2 sloths per m2)
Human population growth is exponential
o We haven’t reached carrying capacity because of advances in _________,
__________, and ___________
Human Impact
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The greenhouse effect (how the Earth stays warm)
o Heat either escapes or is absorbed by greenhouse gases and reflected back
o Greenhouse gases are_______, H2O (water), CH4 (methane), and N2O (nitrous
oxide)
o Natural effect, but too much can have negative consequences
Global warming: the human increase of the greenhouse effect
o As more ______ is trapped, temperatures ___________
o _________ temperatures, increased drought and extreme _______, rising sea
levels caused by ______________
Albedo is how __________ a surface is, given in fraction or percent.
o 0% = _______________ 100% = _________________
Renewable resources cannot be used up by humans or are _________ quicker than
they are ________ (e.g. water, trees, sunlight, wind)
o Non-renewable resources are ______ quicker than they are _________
Feedback Loops
 _______ feedback loops
o A creates/ increases B, which in turn creates more of A
o Causes a constant increase or decrease of something
o Example: Global warming melts ice, which increases temperatures and melts
more ice
 ________ feedback loops
o A creates/ increases B, which lowers or eliminates A
o Usually promotes ________, for example sweating to lower body temperature
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