Depression and reasons for living
Kiyoshi Hayashi and
Hiroko Takahashi
Abstract
In this study, relations between depression and cognition of reasons for living were examined from the point
of view of cognitive behavior therapy. Beck Depression Inventory(BDI) and Reason for living Inventory for
young adults (RLI) were administered to 261 Japanese university students (male 146, female 115). The
results showed relations between two variables. Three factors were extracted as a condition to make a base of
reasons for living; self-acceptance, self-importance and problem solution. The result supported the
hypothesis that cognition of reasons and meaning of living reduce and repress depressive tendency. The
results also indicated that promoting self-acceptance, self-importance and confidence problem solution plays
a basic role in counseling and psychotherapy.
Introduction
The authors have been examining various conditions related to depression from the point of view of
cognitive behavior therapy (Hayashi, K., Takahashi, and H. 2001). A relation between depression and the
reasons for living is treated in this paper.
Humans often talk to themselves from time to time, that is, self-talk. Especially in difficult situations, or
foreseeing something difficult, humans think of many of things and intentionally try to talk themselves in an
attempt to set and prepare themselves for it. This tendency also happens in hopeful situations. Reasons for
living are a basic factor of such a self-talk.
Humans develop their own possibility in a daily life and at the same time, they try to limit the
possibility to adjust for the society. Suzuki et al (Suzuki, Sasaki, & Yoshimura, 2002) pointed out
that humans cannot live all phases of their own possibility. In the interview, the task was to
determine how to support this limitation. To limit and focus the possibility for objects, in which
man can find reasons and meanings, is an opportunity to make one’s own possibility come true.
Humans try to support themselves by recognition of the reasons of living. And finding it will be
help to avoid an urgent task and an expected crisis. It relates to an opportunity for mental
development. According to Allport (1960), searching for reasons and meanings of living is one of
the basic desires of a human being. Frankl（1969）pointed out that the will to meaning is one of
the basic motivations of human existence. Such a belief-value matrix works as the authority -flame
to recognize stimulus itself（Sawada,1984).
If men cannot find purpose to life and reasons and meanings for life, it may cause nugenic neurosis
which is characterized by existential lost, apathy, feeling of purposeless, feeling of meaningless
(Nakamura, Hayashi& Itatsu, 1987). Marcus Aurelius Antonius's Meditations、and Frankl's Ein
Psycholog Erlebt das Konzentrationslager are good examples that searching for reasons for life and
meanings of life play a role in supporting clients. Furthermore, negative self-talk is a condition to
promote depression and panic-disorder (Williams, 1984 and Fox, 1996). It shall be assumed that
searching for reasons for living and the meaning of life and to realize the feelings are factors that
make it possible to control negative feeling.
In cognitive behavior therapy, a parameter is set between a problem and the result caused by it. It is
considered that the reason for living is the parameter. It is possible to understand that self-talk to
search reasons for living can reduce and repress depressive tendency. Lenenan and colleagues chose
to examine the cognitive factors which help individuals to survive in the face of hardship and
adversity (Gutierrez, et al, 2002).
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to examine the hypothesis that the cognition of the reason for living
reduces and represses depressive tendency.
Method
[Questionnaires]
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Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) was used to evaluate the tendency toward depression. BID is
constructed of 21 items and a four-point rating scale.
Reason for Living Inventory for Young Adult (RLI) was used to evaluate the reasons for living.
RLI is constructed of 32 items and a six-point rating scale ranging from 1 to 6; [1. Not important at
all, 2. Quiet unimportant reason, 3. Somewhat unimportant reason, 4. Somewhat important reason,
5. Quite important reason, 6.Extremely important reason.] Item analysis was used to create a
Japanese version of the RLI, and 32 items were adapted. The instruction given was "The following
are specific reasons that help people decided not to stand at the edge of cliff. Please read each
statement carefully, and then choose a number that best describes how important each reason would
be to you for not to stand at the edge of the cliff."
Subjects were 146 male students and 115 female students in a metropolitan area.
BDI and RLI were administered to participants from June to November 2002.
Results
Table 1 shows results of BDI Means and Standard Deviation.
Table : BDI Means and Standard Deviation
──────────────────────────
Item
1. Mood
2. Pessimism
3. Sense of failure
4. Dissatisfaction
5. Guilt
6. Expectation of punishment
7. Self-dislike
8. Self-accusation
9. Self-punishment
10. Crying
11. Irritability
12. Social withdrawal
13. Indeciveness
14. Body image
15. Work retardation
16. Insomnia
17. Fatigability
18. Appetite
19. Weight loss
20. Health concern
21. Loss of libido
Total
Male
M
.59
.53
1.34
.67
.99
.81
.89
1.01
.59
.45
.68
.46
.54
.78
.91
.32
.89
.22
.25
.68
.26
13.96
SD
.73
.92
.86
.73
.77
.91
1.04
1.01
.78
.74
.84
.71
.83
1.00
.91
.58
.76
.52
.59
.63
.56
8.48
Female
M
.42
.62
1.44
.62
.91
.71
.88
.96
.58
.39
.68
.33
.63
.70
.95
.26
.77
.18
.20
.70
.13
13.04
SD
.64
1.00
.86
.75
.62
.97
1.13
.93
.64
.69
.77
.61
.85
1.02
1.04
.52
.67
.45
.48
.60
.41
8.16
──────────────────────────
Table 2 shows results of Reasons of Living Inventory Means and Standard Deviation.
Table2: Reasons for Living Inventory Means and Standard Deviation
Item
Male
M
1. I have many good things to look forward to as I grow older 3.72
2. I believe that suicide is not the way to deal with any of my
4.43
problems.
3. When I think about my future, I feel good inside.
3.62
4. Most of the time I feel good about myself.
3.93
5. My friends stand by me whenever I have a problem.
4.25
6. I believe that I can make many good decisions without
3.78
considering suicide
7. I have a close relationship with my family.
4.32
8. I have many plans I am looking forward to carrying out in
3.97
the future.
SD
1.40
1.70
Female
M
SD
3.62
1.25
4.31
1.58
1.42
1.31
1041
1.38
3.77
4.15
4.67
3.84
1.39
1.26
1.18
1.32
1.39
1.35
4.81
4.29
1.18
1.17
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9. I enjoy being with my family.
10. I have close friends who really care a lot about me.
11. I believe I can deal with most of the losses (e.g divorce or
separation of parents, death of a loved one) in life without
attempting suicide.
12. My family takes the time to listen to my experiences at
school, work, or home.
13. My family gives me the love I need.
14. I believe that my friends treat me fairly.
15. I am hopeful about my plans or goals for the future.
16. I believe that my friends appreciate me when I am with
them.
17. I am satisfied with most of my relationship with my close
friends
18. I am happy to be the person I am.
19. Overall, I am satisfied that thing are going well for me
these days.
20. I have a great deal of respect for myself.
21. When I have a problem, I can turn to my family for
support or advice.
22. After an argument, I prefer to focus on dealing with the
situation rather than to kill myself.
23. I am happy with myself.
24. My family understands the way I feel.
25. My future looks quite hopeful and promising.
26. I am satisfied with my relationships with my family.
27. When faced with a problem, I work hard to understand
and avoid similar problem situations.
28. I would rather take responsibility for solving my problem
than attempt suicide.
29. I would like to see my plans(have a job, career, or family)
for the future come true.
30. I have close friends who are willing to help in times of
need.
31. I look forward to many fun things in the future.
32. I believe that every problem has a positive solution.
4014
4.56
3.02
1.35
1.28
1.50
4.56
5.03
2.96
1.21
1.07
1.35
3.80
1.47
3.99
1.38
3.81
3.99
3.42
3.82
1.33
1.19
1.41
1.33
4.28
4.43
3.57
4.09
1.19
1.04
1.21
1.15
4.34
1.30
5.53
1.22
3.98
3.53
1.38
1.30
4.16
3.71
1.37
1.26
4.01
3.85
1.48
1.55
4.10
4.11
1.28
1.42
4.09
1.42
4.28
1.16
3.47
3.73
3.30
4.36
4.33
1.45
1.25
1.41
1.32
1.26
3.70
4.03
3.44
4.43
4.18
1.33
1.10
1.42
1.17
1.14
3.97
1.36
4.00
1.33
3.16
1.32
3.17
1.15
3.97
1.33
4.46
1.21
3.78
3.95
1.35
1.37
4.04
3.93
1.22
1.24
The results of Reason for Living Inventory were factored and analyzed and valimax rotation was
undertaken. Four factors were extracted. Table 3 shows the results.
Table 3:The result for factor analysis of Reasons for living Inventory
Male
Female
h2
Ⅰ
Ⅱ
Ⅲ
Ⅳ
Ⅰ
Ⅱ
Ⅲ
1
.205
.238
.057
-.038 .10
.125
.099
.184
2
.066
.066
.129
.061
.03
.113
.028
.205
3
.551
.136
.110
.244
.39
-.138 .019
.175
4
.244
.025
.294
.058
.15
.076
.212
.233
5
.090
.209
.683
-.157 39
-.085 .777
-.027
6
-.039 -.038 .483
.325
.34
.375
.151
.297
7
.006
.853
.216
.092
.78
.031
.050
.882
8
.229
.173
.227
.717
.60
-.033 -.001 .244
9
-.026 .838
.164
.165
.76
.074
.145
.820
10
.052
.242
.762
.105
.65
-.042 .792
.103
11
.085
-.003 .180
.072
.04
-.007 -.115 .128
12
.038
.641
.100
.056
.43
.105
.130
.706
13
.178
.625
.280
-.075 .51
.148
.237
.690
14
.200
.162
.751
-.101 .64
.272
.753
.277
15
.277
.062
.178
.706
.61
.200
.175
.028
16
.163
.085
.711
.231
.59
.203
.606
.290
17
.053
.041
.671
.207
.50
.203
.769
.134
Ⅳ
.044
.051
.522
.170
-0.11
.062
.066
.778
.048
.063
.089
.184
.149
.246
.790
.179
.028
h2
.06
.06
.32
.10
.61
.26
.79
.67
.70
.64
.04
.57
.78
.70
.52
.65
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18
.190
.297
19
.266
.185
20
.252
.279
21
.076
.539
22
.065
.050
23
.210
.148
24
.166
.237
25
.714
.138
26
.191
.870
27
.178
.272
28
.281
.112
29
.661
-.039
30
.142
.304
.071
.193
-.021
.230
.093
.022
.683
.272
.097
.126
.010
.025
.663
.227
.004
.214
.101
.271
.037
.097
-.116
-.027
.231
.081
.347
.341
.18
.14
.19
.36
.09
.07
.56
.62
.80
.17
.10
.56
.67
.246
.248
.119
.149
.719
.188
.237
.150
.169
.764
.775
.067
.117
.212
.221
.075
.210
.117
.284
.693
.213
.151
.277
.051
.019
.824
.142
.048
.230
.586
.056
.152
.125
.212
.858
.220
.147
.119
.133
.096
.135
.079
.171
-.003
.118
.064
.443
.098
.113
.016
.449
.062
.13
.13
.08
.44
.53
.15
.56
.31
.80
.72
.63
.22
.71
31
.177
.363
.70
.020
.273
.129
.634
.49
.121
.353
.38
.716
.142
32
.617
.083
.380
.157
.56
.471
.136
contribution ratio
31.291 9.144 7.684 5.219 34.334 9.178 7.941 6.191
total
31.291 40.435 48.119 53.338 34.334 43.512 51.453 57.644
In the results of male participants, four factors were extracted. FactorⅠ was labeled “the prospects
for the future”. Factor Ⅱ was labeled “family”. Factor Ⅲ was labeled “friend”. Factor Ⅳ was
labeled “planning”.
In the results of female participants, four factors were extracted. Factor Ⅰ was labeled “synthetic
problem solution”. Factor Ⅱ was labeled “friend”. Factor Ⅲ was “family”. Factor Ⅳ was “the
prospect of the future”. The factors which are the prospect for future, family, friends are found in
common.
Table 4 shows the result of the correlation between RLI and BDI score.
Table 4 The correlation between RLI and BDI scores
Male
Female
1
-.201
-.137
2
-.116
-.218
3
-.304
-.246
4
-.269
-.390
5
-.348
-.080
6
-.408
-.313
7
-.419
-.083
8
-.289
9
-.398
-.189
10
-.321
-.080
11
-.168
-.172
12
-.229
-.160
13
-.101
-.156
14
-.200
-.136
15
-.266
-.159
16
-.291
-.282
17
-.181
-.214
18
-.423
-.363
19
-.314
-.440
20
-.372
-.417
21
-.268
-.317
22
-.299
-.332
23
-.336
-.389
24
-.176
-.292
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25
-.296
-.387
26
-.278
-.157
27
-.148
-.255
28
-379
-.312
29
-.190
-.420
30
-.217
-193
31
-.255
-.287
32
-.371
-.537
total- -.506- -.445
The results of male participants showed that Item No.6, 7,18,20,32 were significant correlated
between BDI scores.
The results of female participants showed that Item No. 4,18,19,20,23,25,29,32 was significant
correlated between BDI scores.
Discussion
A correlation between the BDI and RLI responses was found. The hypothesis that self-talk to find
reasons for living to reduce and repress depression, is supported. Furthermore, the results in both of
male and female participants indicate that social support like family, friends, and having prospects
for the future are important factors to make reasons for living.
The results indicate some factors as follows;
First, cognition of reasons for living reconfirm the worth of one’s own existence. According to
Matsumura (1961), humans exist in relationships. Consequently, adjustment or maladjustment
relates with a way that people recognize the surrounding situation, that is, recognize it
developmentally or repressively. This relates with a possibility whether a person can find meaning
in various matters of life or not. Especially, the situation which man cannot recognize reasons for
living gives a negative influence to self-recognition. Awareness of existentialism is the central
theme of therapeutic model (Ikemi, 1982). Finding reasons for living is not only a part of cognition
towards objects, but also the step of awareness of existentialism. Having an actual feeling of living
make man discover himself, and brings courage (Kaneko,2003). Consciousness of being a hero or
heroine in one’s own life is constructed of ego-identity and free will (Kajita, 1988). Reason for
living provides humans with decision making based on free will. This indicates that cognition of
reasons for living promotes self-consciousness and positive direction.
Second, cognition of reasons for living means that man recognizes people who need themselves. To
be needed by someone brings people positive will and positive behavior and gives one their own
energy and direction.
Third, cognition of reasons for living is to recognize a time perspective. It is known that one of the
meanings of time perspective is hope (Lewin, 1948). Relating to a time perspective, humans can
recognize their position in the current situation. In making plans for the future, man is positive for
life and has high tolerance. Furthermore, humans behave carefully when considering the future, so
that one may prevent future problems (Kokubu, 1998).
Fourth, finding reasons for living is to recognize the object of the task that is to be carried out. This
indicates that cognition of reasons for living reduces negative conflict. Conflict, and loosing the
purpose of life and behavior causes a mental burden in humans. Cognition of reasons for living
help to reduce such a burden.
Fifth, finding reasons for living means to set the object which interests one outside of themselves. It
is possible to avoid too much self- focusing（Sakamoto，1997. Sakamoto (op cit.) pointed out that
too much self-focusing is a factor causing depression.
Furthermore, forcing one to search reasons for living is harmful. It brings internal tension and it
may cause feelings of lost and meaningless of life. But this is a different matter from searching for
reasons of living itself. Such a problem was caused forcing one to search for it.
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Items of LRI correlated with depressive tendency in both of male and female participants are
current self-acceptance, self-importance, and confidence for problem solution. It is considered that
positive support in relation to these factors can reduce depressive tendency and conflict. The phases
as self-acceptance, self-importance, and confidence for problem solution could be a basic step of
counseling. It is considered that these factors correspond to conative or affective component of
meaning（Scobie, 1975).
Promoting self-acceptance and self-importance is a basic phase in counseling and psychotherapeutic
approach. According to Sawada (1984), in social psychology, acceptance is the opposite of
rejection, and in psychoanalysis, it is the opposite of repression as an internal defensive mechanism.
The process to promote self-acceptance and self-importance is the first step, then it is important to
try to obtain support for developing coping skills to treat the problem as the second step at which
time one can apply Thone’s (1950) theory of clinical counseling. That is, finding support for
internal conflict is treated in the first step, and then the problem of developing coping skills is
treated in second step.
Allport（1962) established three psychological models for guidance. The third model is “Man:
Being in the Process of Becoming”. In this model, the ideal counselor is required to develop an
attitude of commitment to the client himself. This commitment is to be developed as an object,
which a client can utilize to find reasons and meaning for life. Being able to awaken the reason and
meaning of life plays a basic role for counselling.
References
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The authors may be contacted at the following:
Kiyoshi Hayashi and Hiroko Takahashi,
Department of Psychology,
Shiraumegakuen College,
1-830 Ogawacho, Kodaira,
Tokyo,Japan,187-8570
Fax +0423 49 7373
E-mail: hayashi@shiraume.ac.jp
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