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Strong Response Paper
Everyone that has or is going to have children wants the best for them. They don’t want them to
suffer from disabilities or illnesses. What if you could make sure they wouldn’t have those issues? With
genetic manipulation in humans becoming a reality it may be possible. But this raises a lot of
controversial questions and opinions. Let’s start with what is it? Scientists can look at genetic traits in
sperm and egg cells that are going to be passed on to offspring. What this means is essentially parents
can pick some of the genetic traits their child will get. A few factors on the supporting side are, it can
help end many genetic diseases that plague humankind, could bring forth medical advances, we’ve
already have had success by using it in plants, humans have been modifying themselves for centuries,
and that religion has no place in the medical field. As you can see these arguments bring up a lot
opposition and that’s only touching on a few of the main ones.
One of the bigger arguments is that genetic manipulation can lead to a greater understanding of
the human body. By knowing more about the human body doctors will have better treatments and
medicines that will improve the human race as a whole. Humans have been striving to learn more about
how the human body works for as long as we’ve existed. Not all methods have worked or been ethical,
is this one any different? One can argue that the manipulation of the human body has already been
going on for centuries with prosthetic limbs, surgeries, transplants, and medicines and that this is a
more advanced method.
Everything mentioned so far makes it seem like genetic manipulation is a great thing, but truth is
we’re not ready for it. One of the main problem is we don’t understand nearly enough about genetics to
be changing them around how we please. We can’t predict if some procedures will even work let alone
the consequences on future generations. A number of other issues come up with ethics, human rights,
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affordability, religious beliefs, and getting people to agree. Some procedures have been well researched
and are known to work. Such as a mitochondrial transfer being done in the United Kingdom. Jamie Metzl
mentions in his article, “After more than three years of careful study… the United Kingdom [is] on the
path to becoming the first country in the world to authorize this type of human genetic engineering.”
This procedure was well researched and understood making it successful. All of genetic manipulation
needs to be at this point before being used on humans.
Humans have been performing genetic manipulation experiments on plants and animals for
centuries but in recent years the focus has shifted towards manipulating human genes.
In 1941 a Danish microbiologist named A. Jost, during a lecture at a technical institute in Poland,
is the first to use the term “genetic engineering”. Three years later, in 1944, Oswald Avery finds that
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) carries a cell's genetic information. In 1946, scientists discover that genetic
material from different viruses can be combined to form a new type of virus. In 1950 livestock are
artificially inseminated using frozen semen. In 1953, the era of modern genetics begins when Francis C.
Crick and James D. Watson discover the structure of DNA.
In 1954 scientist John Enders receives the Nobel Prize in Medicine for cultivating polio virus in
human embryonic kidney cells. Seven years later, biochemist Marshall Nirenberg, cracks the genetic
code by discovering that a sequence of three nucleotide bases of DNA determine the amino acids that
make up protein. In 1966 Marshall Nirenberg, Heinrich Mathaei and Severo Ochoa decipher the genetic
code. In 1972 Paul Berg creates the first recombinant molecules by combining the DNA of two different
organisms. 1973, using gene splicing techniques developed by Paul Berg, Stanley Cohen and Herbert
Boyer create the first recombinant DNA organism.
In 1977 the first genetic engineering company (Genentech) is founded, using recombinant DNA
methods to make medically important drugs. Genentech, Inc., reports the production of the first human
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protein manufactured in a bacteria, somatostatin, a human growth hormone-releasing inhibitory factor.
In 1978 Genentech produces synthetic human insulin. On July 25, Louise Brown, the first "test tube
baby," is born using in-vitro fertilization technology. 1980 the Cetus Corporation invents the polymerase
chain reaction (PCR) to multiply or copy DNA sequences in vitro. By 1982 Genentech, Inc., receives
approval from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to market genetically engineered human insulin.
In 1984 The DNA "fingerprinting" technique, which identifies individuals by their DNA, is
developed. That same year, the first genetically engineered vaccine for hepatitis is developed. In 1985
The National Institutes of Health (NIH) approves guidelines for performing experiments in gene therapy
on humans. In 1989 The National Center for Human Genome Research is created. The center will
oversee the U.S. effort to map and sequence all human DNA by 2005. In 1990 the first clinical trial of
human gene therapy begins. Mary-Claire King, an epidemiologist at UC-Berkeley studying genomic
sequencing, reports the discovery of the gene linked to breast cancer in families with a high degree of
incidence before age 45. She determines that 5-10% of women with breast cancer develop the disease
because of a mutation to the BRCA1 gene. She has expanded her research by identifying BRCA2, and
extending her technique to other diseases and conditions. In October of 1990 The National Institutes of
Health begins the Human Genome Project. Scientists hope to use the information to treat and cure
genetic diseases. That same year, American and British scientists unveil a technique for testing embryos
in vitro for genetic abnormalities such as cystic fibrosis and hemophilia.
In 1993 President Bill Clinton signs the NIH Revitalization Act of 1993 which allows fetal tissue
transplant research. At the same time, he creates the NIH Human Embryo Research Panel to study the
ethics of fetal and embryonic research. In 1995 Researchers at Duke University Medical Center
transplant hearts from genetically altered pigs into baboons, proving that cross-species operations are
possible. Later, the first baboon-to-human bone marrow transplant is performed on an AIDS patient. In
1995, a campaign is launched by a group of mainstream religions who are trying to overturn laws that
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allow the patenting of genes used for medical research. Gene therapy, genetically engineered antibodies
and immune system modulation enter the clinic in the war against cancer.
In 1996 a gene associated with Parkinson’s disease is discovered and provides an important new
avenue of research into the cause and potential treatment of the neurological ailment. Surveys indicate
the public regards research into the workings of the human genome and gene therapy with a
combination of fear and mistrust. In August of 2000, the NIH announces new guidelines for federal
funding of stem cell research. The guidelines prohibit federal researchers from destroying embryos to
obtain stem cells, but allow researchers to conduct research on cells taken from embryos previously
destroyed by privately-funded sources. In September, a Colorado couple creates a genetically screened
test-tube baby with the hope that the baby could save the life of his sister Molly who suffers from a rare
genetic disease, Fanconi anemia that prevents her body from creating bone marrow. The baby is born
on August 29, and the transplant takes place on September 26 using umbilical cord blood cells.
In 2001 Scientists discover a tumor suppressor gene involved in different types of cancer
including prostate and breast cancer. On August 9, President George W. Bush announces that federal
funding for stem cell research will only use existing stem cell lines. Bush also creates a President's
Council to evaluate and monitor stem cell research. On July 10, 2002, The President's Council on
Bioethics recommends a permanent ban on reproductive cloning. In April of 2003, The International
Human Genome Sequencing Consortium completes the Human Genome Project. January 2008
researchers create new lines of embryonic stem cells using human embryos. In April, scientists in Canada
grow human heart cells from embryonic stem cells. Researchers hope the lab-created heart cells can be
used to repair heart tissue damaged during a heart attack. On September 18, the FDA issues regulatory
guidelines on the use of genetically engineered animals for food, drugs or medical devices.
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February 7, 2009, a drug that contains a protein from the milk of genetically engineered goats
that is meant to prevent blood clots is approved by the FDA. On May 21, 2010, scientists transplant
synthetic DNA into a microbe and create a living organism. On November 29, scientists announce that by
manipulating a gene, they have "reversed brain disease and restored the sense of smell and fertility in
prematurely aged mice." March 14, 2012 social justice groups and environmentalists calls for stronger
government regulations on "extreme genetic engineering." On June 14, 2013, The Supreme Court rules
that human genes cannot be patented and held for profit. On February 26, a government advisory
committee debates a new procedure that would combine "DNA from three people to create embryos
free of certain inherited diseases." February 3, 2015, Britain’s House of Commons voted to allow a
procedure that would include using genes from two females and one male to prevent lethal diseases in
babies.
Human genetic manipulation seems promising to many people. The process of human genetic
modification can cover a wide spectrum of possibilities from alleviating fatal diseases, to picking and
choosing what traits to give an unborn child, and everything in between. With this new technology a
parent may be able to prevent a future child from inheriting a genetic disease such as cystic fibrosis by
replacing the faulty DNA with healthy DNA.
Human Gene Therapy has been successfully used to help a little girl who had an immune system
disorder. This has also been used to help sixteen other patients suffering from a heart disease that were
on death’s door. While this treatment did in fact help these people, it is important to understand that
this type of procedure was used only as a last resort.
Human gene therapy is an individual thing that helps only the person undergoing the
procedure. For now, this type of procedure will not prevent future generations from contracting certain
genetically inherited diseases. That would require targeting the sperm and egg cells which without
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further research, and much needed discussions about the controversy surrounding the idea of making
genetic decisions for future generations, will likely not be in the near future.
Dr. Ray Bohlin, in his paper titled “Human Genetic Engineering” states that the problem will
come when gene therapy is used to change everyday life inconveniences like memory and other issues.
Human gene therapy has the potential to save lives but improper use of it will become problematic.
Improper use may include things like: selecting a child’s gender, hair and eye color, and other physical or
cognitive attributes.
There is much controversy surrounding the idea of choosing a child’s physical appearance.
Some people even want the idea to extend further and be able to choose the sex of a child. While this
idea seems innocent enough to prevent sex linked diseases, but when used to simply pick one gender
over the other it becomes problematic.
When it comes to hair and eye color, many people are in favor of the idea of taking “chance” out
of the equation and deciding for themselves what their child should look like. This causes moral, as well
as ethical dilemmas. These “designer babies” will have been molded according to the parent’s will.
These children would feel out of place in world that is constantly changing and evolving. The world
supports diversity, both physically and genetically. In an article written by Stephanie Sulter, she says that
“we live in an era that acknowledges, accepts and actively celebrates diversity.”
This type of experimentation requires a great amount of analysis and time. It is hard to imagine
that parents wanting to choose a child’s hair and eye color would have the money to spend on changing
something that doesn’t seem to have correlation with intelligence or with what type of person that child
will grow up to be.
With any major decision that can affect a human being’s life, all considerations and possibilities
need to be taken into account such as: safety, success rate, and lasting long term affects. A lot of
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research is needed to guarantee the outcome, and at this point, more investigation is required to
further understand both the possibilities and limits on genetic manipulation.
Medical genetic manipulation affects not only animals and humans but plants as well. As
humanity has grown the struggle to feed the masses has become incredibly apparent. As we expand in
size companies like Monsanto have come into play, where they believe this problem can be solved with
Genetically Modified Organisms. They have created plants that have large production and size load,
plants that can withstand harsh weather, insect infestations and plant diseases (Monsanto, web. 20022015).
Dr. Charles Benbrook makes a valid point in “An Interview with Dr. Charles Benbrook on Genetic
Engineering” where he claims:
“If everybody just ate less meat we’d be fine. We don’t have to
give up meat, if North America and Europe just ate a 1/3 less meat, and
all of the farm land devoted today to growing livestock feed, that’s
converted to about 6 pounds of plant biomass to about 1 pound of
animal product, if that land were to be redirected to rice, wheat,
tomatoes, peas and nutritionally dense foods, we could eliminate world
hunger.”
Dr. Benbrook goes on to show how going back to our roots and getting in touch organically with
the plants we can solve infestation and soil issues without the need for genetically altering the plant.
The outcome cannot be fully guaranteed at this time, nor has enough research been completed on the
nutritional value of the genetically altered organism. (Mangan, Arty, Web March 9 2015
synthesis/regeneration)
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One would argue this is where companies like Monsanto would be helpful. But with all of the
research completed, one is to ask themselves, nutritionally is genetically altered the way to go? The
chart below shows a comparison of GMO corn vs. Non GMO corn
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(Moms Across America, web 2015)
There are many studies out there, and most of them show organic crops taste better, and are
more nutritionally dense. No one is quite sure of the complete outcome of long term digestion of
Genetically Altered Organisms, the growth process cannot be fully guaranteed at this time, and more
testing is needed to further our understanding of the full effects.
The argument is: “Should genetic manipulation be used on humans?” This is a tough question to
answer. There’s a lot of great things that can come from it, but we don’t understand enough about
genetics to be making big changes to them. It has potential to change the world but much more
research and testing needs to be done. The other problems will be solving ethical issues, availability, and
affordability. As we saw with the genetically altered food, organic foods were more nutritious and
beneficial. Maybe the same goes for humans. After all the research given towards this topic we came to
the conclusion that genetic manipulation shouldn’t be completely ruled out but it needs to be more
understood before putting people’s lives on the line.