LM1 (Boyd) 2015-16
Handout 3
Different Approaches to the study of English
Different Approaches to Studying (English) Grammar
TRADITIONAL GRAMMAR
STRUCTURAL LINGUISTICS
TRANSFORMATIONAL
GENERATIVE GRAMMAR
CORPUS LINGUISTICS
SYSTEMIC FUNCTIONAL
LANGUAGE (GRAMMAR)
1
focuses more on single sentences than on sentences combined into texts; based on classical descriptions of Greek and Latin grammar
describes languages without the preconceived notions of what a language should contain and how it should operate (prescriptive vs.
descriptive grammar)

greater emphasis on the structural characteristics of linguistic elements: form (lexical) vs. function (grammatical) words
an alternative to structural linguistics’ focus on surface forms: it analyzes the deep structures of language, which underlie all human
languages and are genetically programmed in the human brain (Chomsky)

grammar is an abstract device used for producing and understanding sentences in any and all languages (universal grammar)

sentences are labelled according to hierarchical relations between component parts but such a tree structure does not indication the
function of a particular constituent
the study of large bodies of language data (corpus) with electronic software: demonstrates that native speaker intuitions about general
language usage are not necessarily reliable

corpus-based grammars provide information on the frequency of different types of language use

languages are more patterned that previously thought, which can be seen in collocations highlighted by concordances

allows one to compare what occurs in individual texts with a large number of texts
part of the ‘functional’ turn in linguistics, which considered language, text and context as being systematically tied together (through
register and context of situation)

SFL descriptions of language focus more on how language is functioning, what semantic meanings it is making and the overall
communicative effect. Language is considered as a system of choices from which speakers/writers select elements (not always
consciously)
register: includes three main aspects of social contexts or situational variables which will influence linguistic choices and construct
social realities

field=the type of social activity taking place

tenor=the social roles and relationships between the participants

mode=aspects of the channel of communication
metafunctions grammar creates meaning through metafunctions that are related to phenomena outside language 1:

The interpersonal metafunction is concerned with the interaction between speaker and addressee(s), the grammatical resources for
enacting social roles in general, and speech roles in particular, in dialogic interaction; i.e. for establishing, changing, and
maintaining interpersonal relations. One of its major grammatical systems is MOOD;

The ideational metafunction is concerned with the 'ideation’ of grammatical resources for construing our experience of the world
around us and inside us. One of its major grammatical systems is TRANSITIVITY, the resource for construing our experience the
flux of ‘goings-on’, as structural configurations; each consisting of a process, the participants involved in the process, and
circumstances attendant on it. For example: [Location:] in the open glade [Actor:] the wild rabbits [Process:] danced
[Accompaniment:] with their shadows.

The textual metafunction is concerned with the creation of text, with the presentation of ideational and interpersonal meanings as
From http://minerva.ling.mq.edu.au/resource/VirtuallLibrary/Publications/sfg_firststep/SFG%20intro%20New.html
Lingua linguistica inglese
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
CRITICAL DISCOURSE
ANALYSIS
MULTIMODAL CRITICAL
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

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Boyd
information that can be shared by speaker and listener in text unfolding in context. One of the major textual systems is THEME,
the resource for setting up a local context for a clause by selecting a local point of departure in the flow of information (or perhaps
rather ‘swell of information’, since it is not a uniform flow). Thus the spatial Location is given thematic status in the example
analysed for TRANSITIVITY above: [Theme:] in the open glade [Rheme:] the wild rabbits danced with their shadows.

“Discourse Analysis focuses on knowledge about language beyond the word, clause, phrase and sentence that is needed for
successful communication. It looks at patterns of language across texts (both written and spoken) and considers the relationship
between language and the social and cultural contexts in which it is used. Discourse analysis also considers the ways that the use of
language presents different views of the world and different understandings. It examines how the use of language is influenced by
relationships between participants as well as the effects the use of language has upon social identities and relations. It also
considers how views of the world, and identities, are constructed through the use of discourse” [Paltridge, Brian (2006) Discourse
Analysis. Continuum]
Some important notions of DA:

the relationship between language and context: e.g. how people know, from the situation that they are in, how to interpret what
someone says (writes)

DA and Pragamatics: Pragmatics is concerned with how the interpretation of language depends on knowledge of the real world and
it is interested in what people mean by what they say, rather than what words in their most literal sense might mean by themselves
(Cf. Semantics which is interested in literal rather than pragamatic meaning)

Discourse structure of texts: DA interested in how people organize what they say in the sense of what they typically say first, and
what they say next, etc.

Cultural ways of speaking and writing: greater cultural context(s) of speech situation.

Critical Discourse Analysis draws upon a wide range of approaches: linguistics (specifically SFL & Critical Linguistics), social
theory, sociology, ethnography, psychology, history, etc.

It aims to analyse texts and it sees discourse as not only a product of society, but also as an important force in (re)shaping social
practices, both positively and negatively. In CDA, since language (text) is seen as a site of struggle, one of its goals is to bring
about change in the social structure itself (see, especially, Fairclough). This is different from previous approaches [e.g. SFL], which
uses discourse analysis as a means for certain groups to gain access to texts or genres. While discourse is determined by social
conditions, it also reproduces and perpetuates those conditions. CDA stresses the need for a close linguistic analysis of discourseas-text in order to develop in detail the way that discourse can contribute to exploitation and marginalisation of certain groups, or
discourse as discursive and social practice (ingroups vs. outgroups).

CDA typically analyzes news texts, political discourse (speeches, debates, interviews), advertisements, school books, etc.,
“exposing strategies that appear normal or neutral on the surface but which may in fact be ideological and see to shape the
representation of events and persons for particular ends” (Machin & Mayr 2012: 5)

Results from a general feeling that visual analysis lacked a “toolkit that could facilitate more precise, systematic and careful
description that would in turn allow more accurate analysis” > Scholars felt that they needed the same tools to be able to study
visual features that CDA allowed for the study of lexical and grammatical choices in language (Machin & Mayr 2012: 7)

MCDA is “interested in showing how images, photographs, diagrams and graphics also work to create meaning, in each case
describing the choices made by the author” (ibid. 9)
Both Corpus Linguistics and SFL assume that there is a very close relationship between the lexis and grammar (unlike traditional approaches to grammar). Thus,
while TGG is concerned with what speakers can say, CL and SFL are also concerned with what speakers do say.
CDA makes use of many different theories, especially CL and SFL.
Required Reading (Photocopy available in the library:
Coffin, Caroline & Kieran O’Halloran. (2010) “Describing English”. In: Janet Maybin & Joan Swann (Eds.) The Routledge Companion to English Language Studies, pp.
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Boyd
SFL Example Discussion Text 12
(1) There are four things a young child ought to learn about fishing his first time out. (2) First, hooks are sharp.(3) Demonstrate this by lightly pressing the point against the
fleshy part of his thumb. (4) Second, a pole is held in a certain way (usually at the end in two hands, one above the other). (5) Third, noise frightens the fish away. (6) Fourth,
the fisherman must be patient. (7) Perhaps the best way to teach patience is to be patient yourself, since his attitude will depend to a considerable extent on how you behave.
NOTES: This excerpt interested in giving information about the state of the world, so much of the language expresses the ideational metafunction (e.g. hooks are
sharp, noise frightens the fish away). Another ideational metafunction is realized in (7) with since, which establishes the logical relationship of reason between the
two main ideas in the sentence. Yet the writer (a man) also reveals his attitude and shows that he is expressing an opinion through the use of modality (e.g. ought to
(1), must be (6), perhaps (7)). This is the interpersonal metafunction. The writer is giving advice to parents about how they should teach their children to fish.
Perhaps (7) indicates that the final point is merely a suggestion, which a reader might decide to reject, in contrast to the earlier advice of ought to and must be which
is more urgent. By using the possessive adjective his the writer is also expressing a view that the child will most likely be a boy, which reveals ideological aspects of
the writer’s attitude (which he is presenting as being representative of the world). Finally, the textual metafunction is realized through the word order of the
sentences, through which the information is sequenced for the reader and also through the cohesion devices of first, second etc. It is the mixing of the metafunctions
that realizes the meaning(s) of the text as an act of communication between the writer and his readers.
SFL Example Discussion Text 2: Focus on the sentences and phrases that reveal the attitude of the writer to the places described
Welcome to Singapore, a city of many colours and contrasts, cultures and cuisines …
Even if your visit is a short stopover between flights, it is possible to take in some of Singapore’s sights before departure. An evening out with a tour group can lead to
all sorts of fun and adventure.
One tour unveils the cultural diversity of Singapore and features Indian, Chinese and Peranakan heritages. It takes in Little India and samples local food, including the
flaky, pancake style bread, roti prata.
Next stop is the Kong Meng San Phor Kark See Temple, Singapore’s largest Buddhist temple, with its magnificent statues, including one carved from a 10-ton block of
marble.
The tour then continues to the Straits National Gallery where you can discover the unique Chinese/Malay Peranakan culture.
The final stop is Arab Street to explore the vibrant Malay culture and the old charm the area has retained.
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Examples from Bloor & Bloor (2004) The Functional Analysis of English, Hodder Education
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LM1 (Boyd) 2015-16
Handout 3
Practice 1 – Text Analysis
In SMALL GROUPS look at the excerpts taken from the Internet, which have the phrase “into the house” in common.
Together determine what kind of ‘text’ it is and where it comes from.
Consider the following, providing specific examples from the texts:
 What is the subject matter? Where would you find such a text?
 What types of verb, noun, pronoun, adverb, adjective are used?
 How formal/informal is the text?
 Is the text from the spoken or written language? How did you decide this?
 What kind of lexis is used? Is it specific or general?
 What is the writer’s (or speaker’s) intention (text function): to convince, to persuade, to entertain, to
inform, etc.?
 What effect does the text have on you?
1.
Ydlbert lived half a mile closer to town than I
did, and parted from his family at the rise that
marked off his property from my own; Anya
trudged down3 the gentle slope in the brilliant
sunlight, her noisy children following behind
like a family of rumple-headed ducks. Ydlbert
accompanied us to our farm, and thought, no
doubt, that I had prepared him an elaborate
joke. Adelaïda took Elizaveta into the house,
and as Ydlbert stood with his arms folded
across his chest, I brought my horse, whom I
could hardly grow accustomed to calling by
her God-given name, Hammadi, outside.
2.
The alae (alae is the plural of ala, the word
ala means 'wing') were the open rooms on
each side of the atrium. Their use is largely
unknown today. One knows that in the early
Italian houses, which had a covered atrium,
the alae had windows to allow light to enter
the house. However, with the introduction of
the opening in the roof above the atrium and
the general abandoning of windows in the
Roman house, the alae became largely
obsolete. It appears more that they were
incorporated into the house in accordance to
tradition, rather than for any specific use.
3.
Commons Speaker Michael Martin told MPs:
“Eight protesters were let into the House of
Commons using a forged letter inviting them
to a meeting in the Committee corridor. Once
there, they were led into the small stairway to
the north end of the corridor – probably by a
passholder who was clearly exceeding his or
her authority.” It was not clear whether the
passholder who apparently helped the
intruders was an MP, a reporter or an
employee of a member, he said. The
3
to walk with slow heavy steps
intrusion was a “carefully planned operation”
and the police are investigating, he added.
4.
I think we tried to keep the story grounded4 as
much as possible in sort of the reality
of…erm… a domestic situation, you know,
you have this, the house guest who won't
leave and, you know, of course, he comes
into the house and he's like, you know, he
takes over, he takes over Craig's character's
life, you know, it’s like suddenly he's with his
ex-girlfriend.
5.
When they had heard the king, they departed;
and, lo5, the star, which they saw in the east,
went before them, till it came and stood over
where the young child was. When they saw
the star, they rejoiced with exceeding great
joy. And when they were come into the
house, they saw the young child with Mary
his mother, and fell down, and worshipped
him: and when they had opened their
treasures, they presented unto him gifts; gold,
and frankincense and myrrh. And being
warned of God in a dream that they should
not return to Herod, they departed into their
own country another way.
6.
First, find the location where external phone lines
come into your house. Determine which lines are
internal and which lines route back to the phone
company. Disconnect the phone lines coming into
the house from the phone company because they
might cause noise on the line (or damage the
VoIP6 adapter) and they aren't being used anyway
(Word of Caution: Do not attempt this if you still
have an active line with the phone company, it will
cause your landline service to cease functioning).
4 based on
5
interj used to draw attention to something (archaic or
literary)
6
Voice over Internet Protocol
Lingua linguistica inglese
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7.
10. Where any Bill is introduced into the House
of Representatives, the Attorney-General
shall,
(a) In the case of a Government Bill, on the
introduction of that Bill; or
(b) In any other case, as soon as
practicable after the introduction of the
Bill, bring to the attention of the House
of Representatives any provision in the
Bill that appears to be inconsistent with
any of the rights and freedoms in this Bill
of Rights.
Police are investigating exactly how the car
managed to “take off” from street level and
crash into the house in Basingstoke, Hants,
on Wednesday. The men's condition is
described as serious, but stable. Police want
to speak to a third man, who was helped from
the car but then left the scene. The occupants
escaped uninjured as they were asleep in
another bedroom. A police spokeswoman
said that one man was found in a passenger
seat and the other man, who they believe
could be the driver, was found under the front
wheels.
8.
ON the day Lady Diana Spencer married into
the House of Windsor in 1981, her good
fortune appeared to be boundless. Hardly out
of her teens, she decommissioned the world's
foremost bachelor and signed on to produce
the next heir of a monarchy whose wealth is
conservatively estimated at more than $8
billion. Fifteen years later, her divorce nearly
a fait accompli, the Princess of Wales faces a
reversal of fortune. British newspapers report
that Princess Diana is to receive $22.5
million, enough to generate $1 million a year
for life, with annual increases to cover
inflation, plus a castle and staff. While that
sum might be princely for commoners,
compared to the settlements of other people
who married into great wealth and then
divorced, hers averages $1.6 million for each
year of marriage. Her ex-Prince Charming
looks like a piker7.
9.
According to this mode of proceeding, the
imposition of taxes produced no interchange
of communication between the two houses of
parliament. To introduce a money bill, or an
amendment to a money bill, into the House
of Lords–to deliberate upon the bill or
amendment in that house—after agreeing to
it there, to submit it to the deliberation of the
House of Commons—all this would have
been perfectly nugatory8. Let us suppose,
that the bill or amendment had undergone the
most full and careful examination in the
House of Lords, who, acting only for
themselves, could examine it under every
aspect, unfettered9 by exteriour direction and
control: let us suppose it then transmitted to
the house of commons, for their concurrence:
what could the house of commons do?
11. In only seven years Subliminal has developed
into a powerhouse. After ceasing to be
distributed by another company, Subliminal
instead became an independent distributor
handling Harry Romero's label, Bambossa, as
well as three other new imprints: Sondos,
which caters to a deeper, darker sound,
Subliminal Soul, which offers jazzy, deep
house and SUBUSA, a unique blend of funky
80's electro house. Also, this year, Erick
Morillo, Yousef, Dave Beer and Paul
Woolford have broken into the house music
scene with their new label, What Goes
Around.
7
stingy person
of no importance; with no legal force
9
free from
8
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Lingua linguistica inglese
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