Patricia Hanly Mangnall
21 April 2008
JUS 515-91 - Research Design and Analysis
Professor Perani
NEW LEARNING DISCLOSURE STATEMENT
During the research and preparation of this final paper, I learned the following things I did not know before:
1.
Prison Officials have to spend a lot of time, energy and resources accommodating the multitude of religious needs of their inmates.
2.
Catholicism requires a huge number of items in order to practice their religion – far more than any other religion.
3.
Ásatru is a religion, it is fast growing, and it is often used by white supremacist groups to recruit members in prison.
4.
Many sites on the internet give statistics on the religious demographics of prisoners; however, none of them could actually cite a valid source for their statistics – which makes me think that groups are skewing the numbers to suit their needs.
5.
The Technical Manual for Religious Guidelines has not been updated in at least 6 years, and does not recognize some religions that seem to be commonplace in society, such as
Mormonism, Jehovah’s Witness, and Seventh Day Adventist.
6.
The Muslim Religion accounts for over 80% of religions conversions in prison.
Name: _Patricia Hanly Mangnall___________________ Date: ___21 April 2008___

Patricia Hanly Mangnall
21 April 2008
JUS 515-91 - Research Design and Analysis
Professor Perani

Patricia Mangnall Benefits and Problems of Religious Rights in Prison
Prison administrators must perform a delicate balancing act of allowing for adequate religious expression, while at the same time ensuring safety inside the prison. In short, prisons must balance First Amendment rights with valid security concerns. For example, an overtly racist religion may not be allowed to practice within prison simply because of the additional trouble it may cause. Ultimately, prison officials have wide latitude when it comes to security.
(Pitcavage, 2002) Religion operates as a protective factor against negative behaviors such as crime and delinquency, by creating and reinforcing faith-based social networks and bonds.
Individuals with higher levels of religious commitment are more likely to engage in religious
‘role taking’ in such that they interact with others according to their perception of how a Divine
Other would expect them to act. Within the prison setting, religious individuals may internalize religious norms such as kindness, empathy, and civility. (Kerley, Matthews, & Blanchard, 2005)
Religion has almost always been a part of prison reform. Yet, religion, religious rights and the very definition of religion continues to change every day.
In the early 1800’s there were two main penitentiary movements. The Pennsylvania
Movement required that inmates be solitarily confined to their cells so that they could study religious writings and repent. The other movement at that time was known as the Auburn
System. This system was different in that inmates shared cells and were also required to perform labor. The Auburn System ultimately prevailed, most likely because its system allowed for greater profit to the penitentiary. (Bohm & Haley, 2005)
2

Patricia Mangnall Benefits and Problems of Religious Rights in Prison
While the First Amendment of the United States Constitution states, "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof...”
(United States Government), there was little constitutional protection of religious rights until the mid-20 th century. It was around this time that religion was recognized as an accepted program in virtually all United States prisons. Most prisons employed prison chaplains and allowed volunteer lay persons to attend to prisoners religious needs. For the most part, religious rights extended primarily to the two main Christian doctrines of Catholics and
Protestants. (Law Library, 2008)
Cooper v Pate (1964) opened the door for lawsuits challenging restrictions on prisoner’s exercise of religion. The growth of the black Muslim religion in prison set the stage for litigation which demanded that non-Christians should receive the same rights and privileges as people of
Christian faiths. These rights included special diets, access to clergy and religious publications and opportunities for group worship. Later, the courts expanded the ruling to include that a
Buddhist prisoner must be given the same religious opportunities as other prisoners. (Thomas
& Zaitzow, 2006) Courts, as well as legal scholars, have attempted to define religion; however, it is practically impossible to define it in a way with which everyone agrees on. Religion can be defined either in a broad or narrow manner. This definition can mean all the difference between having rights or no rights to practice a certain set of beliefs. (Ogden & Rebein, 2001)
The Supreme Court addressed the definition of religion in United States v. Seeger
(1965), as it applied to a statute that allowed religious objectors to avoid being drafted to military service. The Court declared that the statute's definition would be interpreted to include
3

Patricia Mangnall Benefits and Problems of Religious Rights in Prison any ‘sincere and meaningful’ belief that ‘occupies a place in the life of its possessor parallel to that filled by the orthodox belief in God of one who clearly qualifies for the exemption.’ (Ogden
& Rebein, 2001)
In 2000 Congress passed the Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Persons Act, which states that the right to assemble for worship is at the very core of the free exercise of religion.
In addition, it was stated that ‘religious assemblies cannot function without a physical space adequate to their needs and consistent with their theological requirements’. (U.S. Department of Justice, 2000) The Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Persons Act puts the burden more directly on prison officials to make their case that a particular religious belief or practice pose a threat to security. (Pitcavage, 2002) Although religious freedoms may be modified by prison administrators, they may neither be repressed nor ignored by prison officials without sufficient reason. (Thomas & Zaitzow, 2006)
Each inmate experiences religion in prison in a highly personal way. Religion also can be viewed as a group event, since the prison is an interconnected network of social groups. (Clear,
2000) Inmates seek religion in prison for various reasons. Some hope to gain a sense of direction and purpose in their lives, peace of mind, a safe haven from the rest of the prison population, or to meet other inmates with similar interests. Some inmates also want to have access to prison resources or special privileges, pass contraband or to influence parole considerations. Because of these last reasons, prisoners involved in religious activities are frequently met with skepticism or distrust from prison staff and other inmates. Instances
4

Patricia Mangnall Benefits and Problems of Religious Rights in Prison where former inmates who were active in religious activities while in prison commit further offenses after release add further support to these feelings. (Law Library, 2008)
Research has suggested that religiousness is associated with the reduction in the likelihood of criminal activity and drug use. It is also associated with increased ‘niceness’, and improved psychological well being. Religious participation also can provide comfort for difficult life situations, and opportunities for participation in politics and formal volunteering. In essence, religion may function as a force for increasing pro-social behavior and reducing antisocial behaviors within the special context of a prison. (Kerley, Matthews, & Blanchard,
2005) The role of spirituality in prison is one that has not been fully addressed in research, however it is also considered to be a form of adaptation – helping prisoners adjust and become productive in their environment. Both formal and informal spirituality programs provide mechanisms for adapting to the deprivation of prison culture. (Thomas & Zaitzow, 2006)
Studies have demonstrated a positive correlation between religious association/participation and the morale and behavior of prisoners during incarceration. Highly religious inmates have fewer disciplinary problems during incarceration than other prisoners.
Studies show that 40% of a group that had been classified as participating heavily in religious programs was arrested for new crimes after release, compared with 51% of those who were described as having little or no participation in religious programs. (McDaniel, Davis, & Neff,
2005) Its not just religious participation – it’s the intensity and commitment too.
For the inmate, there are tangible benefits to prison conversion. If a religion is recognized by the authorities, inmates can get certain religious privileges. They may be able to
5

Patricia Mangnall Benefits and Problems of Religious Rights in Prison get access to sweat lodges in some Western state prisons, even if they are not Native American.
Inmates may be allowed to have private meetings with religious leaders from the outside.
Prison officials often will allow inmates to meet with others of their religion. (Pitcavage, 2002)
Administrators generally agree that programs are important in dealing with the problem of too much time on the prisoner’s hands. The more programs the prison offers, the less likely inmate idleness turns into hostility. Prisoner religious organizations present a unique opportunity to channel inmate’s energies and use their talents in a meaningful and beneficial way. Further, programs provide an alternative to involvement in gangs. (Thomas & Zaitzow,
2006)
America's prisons are filled with potential extremist recruits. Prisoners have a lot of time on their hands, so angry prisoners can be overly receptive to extreme belief systems. For extremist groups, inmates represent a valuable source of potential; these are people who can carry on the struggle in prison and after their release. New recruits take on their gang's violent, hateful rhetoric and animosity toward other races or religions and, in turn, gain access to new avenues of criminal activity and protection inside of prison. While many prisoners discontinue their association with extremist groups once they are released, many retain their fanatical position and commit new crimes based on their newly found extremist beliefs. (Anti-
Defamation League, 2002)
Many officials believe that Islam is the fastest growing religion in prison. In the Texas prison system, there are approximately 7,500 Muslims. Most of them converted to Islam after
6

Patricia Mangnall Benefits and Problems of Religious Rights in Prison they were incarcerated. (Gomez, 2006) Official estimates suggest that the percentage of
Muslim inmates is 15-20% of the prison population. Roughly 80% of the prisoners who "find faith" while in prison convert to Islam. Radical Islamist groups dominate Muslim prison recruitment in the U.S. and seek to create a faction of felons who will support their anti-
American efforts. (Wikipedia Contributors, 2008) In one study of Muslim prisoners, 69% reported to have identified strongly with Islam during their incarceration, with only 31% doing so before being incarcerated. Islam is most impressive for prison inmates because of its simplicity, comprehensiveness, universal egalitarianism and the brotherhood of its community.
It has special appeal to those who are oppressed and are not tied to any privileged class.
(Ammar, Weaver, & Saxon, 2004)
Other officials believe that Odinism/Ásatru is the fastest growing religion behind prison walls. (Southern Poverty Law Center, 2000) Wotan, a violently white supremacist and anti-
Semitic version of Ásatru, is also considered part of this growth. Most of the nearly 20,000 practitioners of Wotan serving time in federal and state prisons are men, however the vast majority of Wotan’s leaders in the free world are women. Wotan organizations have arranged prison outreach programs that seek to convert white prisoners to Wotanism. (Mecklin, 2008) A great number of prisoners are converting to racist Ásatru as a way of getting special privileges.
(Pitcavage, 2002) White supremacists in prison frequently claim adherence to various religious sects not just as an expression of racist beliefs but also as a way to circumvent prison regulations. (Anti-Defamation League, 2002)
7

Patricia Mangnall Benefits and Problems of Religious Rights in Prison
Some prisoners use religion as a means to promote gang activity. Other prisoners creatively attempt to establish individual religions with obscure needs as a means of acquiring resources such as ‘ritualistic’ wine, steak and less restricted access to sex. Prisoners could easily circumvent prison rules simply by invoking a religious premise. (Thomas & Zaitzow, 2006)
The easiest way to receive vegetarian or vegan meals in prison is to join a religion that has vegetarianism or veganism as a tenet of the faith. (Ogden & Rebein, 2001) Prisoners claim they're Muslims when they have no belief in Islam. Others claim they are Ásatru or Wiccans when they are not Pagans. This is a very difficult area for prison officials since despite the fact that there are genuine converts, it also hard to prove that a particular prisoner doesn't really believe in a particular religion. (Pitcavage, 2002)
During the past few decades, significant changes affecting state prisons have once again focused attention on the participation of religious volunteers in the correctional system. The inmate population more than doubled in the decade between 1980 and 1990. Although federal prisons continue to employ chaplains in their facilities, state corrections systems have found the cost of prison clergy positions prohibitive. As a result, many state departments of correction have turned to volunteers to provide certain religious services to inmates. However, budget constraints have been only part of the reason for the transition to volunteers. Prisons must accommodate the increasingly diverse religious needs of inmates. Making allowances for the variety of religious expression in a multicultural prison population not only increases the possibility of litigation on grounds of religious discrimination, but also increases the cost in time and resources for the prisons. (Kinney, 2006)
8

Patricia Mangnall Benefits and Problems of Religious Rights in Prison
The Technical Reference Manual (TRM) on Practical Guidelines for Administration of
Inmate Beliefs and Practices was written to assist prison chaplains and administrative personnel to appropriately facilitate the religious beliefs and practices of inmates within a correctional environment. The mission of the Chaplaincy is to accommodate the free exercise of religion to all Federal inmates and facilitate the opportunity to pursue individual religious beliefs and practices in accordance with the law, Federal regulations and Bureau of Prisons policy. The staff chaplain provides religious worship, education, counseling, spiritual direction, support and crisis intervention to accommodate the diverse religious needs of inmates. Fourteen religious traditions are covered within the TRM: Buddhism, Eastern Rite Catholicism, Hinduism, Islam,
Judaism, Moorish Science Temple of America, National of Islam, Native American,
Odinism/Ásatru, Protestant Christianity, Rastafarianism, Roman Catholic Christianity, Sikh
Dharma, and Wiccan. (Federal Bureau of Prisons, 2002)
The 343 page Practical Guidelines for Administration of Inmate Beliefs and Practices
Technical Reference Manual was examined to establish what provisions are made for the recognized religions in prison, and to determine if any one religion received more accommodations or privileges than the others. Relevant details of the TRM were put into a
spreadsheet to determine discrepancies or oddities. See Table 1.
The list of personal religious property items for each religion is generally transferrable to all institutions within the Bureau of Prisons. Additional personal religious property items may be approved locally by the warden; final decisions on personal property rest with the warden.
9

Patricia Mangnall Benefits and Problems of Religious Rights in Prison
Personal religious items include things such as prayer beads, prayer rug, feathers, holy cards and religious medallions. Congregate items of worship are diverse and include items such as framed pictures of religious icons, singing bowls, candles, sweat lodges, statues, and altars. The average amount of personal religious items was 5.5 for all religions, with a median of 5. Islam had the most personal religious items, with an allowance of 12 items. Rastafarians and Hindu were allowed the least amount of items for personal worship. It should be noted that these items are specified in the TRM as required by the various religions. The TRM does not note whether or not more items were requested yet denied.
The average amount of congregate religious items was 9.6, with a median of 8. Roman
Catholics require three pieces of furniture, 16 Worship Accouterments, and 12 other religious items for a total of 31 congregate religious items. Both Sikh Dharma and Buddhism required no additional congregate items of worship. When adding together both personal and congregate items of worship, Roman Catholics are allowed far more items than any other religion, for a total of 40. The next highest amount is Wiccan with 23. The average amount of personal and congregate items allowed is 15.15, with a median of 13.
The TRM divides Religious practices into daily, weekly, monthly and occasional observances, along with Holy Days. The religions listed all required or at least strongly encouraged daily individual prayers. Most had a scheduled weekly time and place within the prison for group worship or group religious studies. Only one religion, Buddhism, also met monthly. The Occasional observances varied greatly. Some religions had only a couple specific days where religious observances were made, while other religions had as many as 33 specific
10

Patricia Mangnall Benefits and Problems of Religious Rights in Prison religious observances. In the case of Ásatru, many of these observances could be acknowledged during regular meeting times, so special accommodations were not needed.
However, Protestants had the most individual and distinct religious observances recognized.
Inmates do not receive time off from work for any of the occasional religious observances.
Judaism has nine recognized Holy Days, along with 4 Public Fast days and 3 contemporary holidays. The majority of the other religions had very few Holy Days. Inmates are not required by the prison to work on Holy Days, therefore Judaism has the most ‘days off from work’ with 13 total days of work proscription. In contrast, those of the Wiccan faith do not have any Holy Days.
Each individual inmate who requests to participate in the Alternative Diet Program is personally interviewed by the chaplain. The religious dietary accommodations made for each inmate will be based on the results of the interview and individual correctional judgment.
The majority of the religions represented do not need any special religious dietary provisions made for them. Those religions who practice vegetarianism (Buddhist, Hindu, NOI, and Rastafarianism) can meet their dietary needs through self-selection of the current meal choices. Most of the religions are able to ‘self-select’ and choose not to eat an offending item such as pork. Islam and Judaism have more complicated dietary restrictions, and while selfselection is an option for them, special accommodations must also be made such as offering foods that are considered Halal or Kosher.
11

Patricia Mangnall Benefits and Problems of Religious Rights in Prison
Most of the religions did not have any specific or unusual medical prohibitions, other than Islam which does not allow any medications that contain alcohol. The TRM indicate that
Tuberculosis tests and HIV tests must be given due to public health issues, regardless of religious orientation.
Each religion has its own beliefs regarding grooming and articles of clothing. The TRM makes clear which items of clothing are acceptable and when and where they can be worn. For instance, those of Jewish faith are permitted to wear the yarmulkah, however those of the
Moorish religion may only wear Fezzes during Chapel services.
Judaism
It is important to note that observant Jews from sunset Friday evening to one hour after sunset Saturday night do not use electrical appliances, do not ride in a vehicle, do not write, cook, sew, nor turn electricity off and on. Thus, an observant Jewish inmate will refuse to allow his fingerprints to be taken on Shabbos. Likewise, the use of a breathalyzer is forbidden because it activates an electric charge in order to produce a reading. If this is the case, the inmate may be tested after Sundown that day, thus completing the locally stipulated alcohol surveillance procedures.
Muslim
Muslims are not allowed to touch anything made with pork contents. In work assignments gloves may be worn where pork is present. The only person of the opposite gender who may be in physical contact with a Muslim is the spouse.
12

Patricia Mangnall Benefits and Problems of Religious Rights in Prison
Native American
As the United States government realized early on, Native American spirituality differs from Christian religious doctrine. For Christians, there is a distinct separation between religious practice and everyday activity. For Native Americans, however, no such clear-cut distinction exists because religion cannot be separated from everyday life. Even using the word "religion" to describe Native American spirituality is misguided, because it fails to take into consideration the inseparable connection between spirituality and culture. One cannot exist without the other. Native American spiritual observances are "guided by cycles, seasons and other natural related occurrences," and these spiritual aspects are inextricably woven into the culture itself.
(Brooks, 1997)
The most common right exercised is the right to attend religious services in various denominations. Not only are Christian religions represented, but prisoners have the right to worship Islam, Buddhism, and other recognized religions. Some practices not considered part of an established organized religion are not allowed. Inmates can also observe special diets and possess religious items, such as prayer beads, feathers, medicine pouches, and prayer rugs, as long as they do not interfere with prison operations. (Law Library, 2008)
Although Religion has always played a vital role in correctional programming, it has also evoked controversy because uninhibited religious expression may conflict with concerns relating to security and safety. (Thomas & Zaitzow, 2006) Many argue that religious freedoms
(and freedoms for prisoners in general) have gone too far. Most people believe that prison is a place to de deprived of rights, to have minimal freedoms, a place where life is not easy. Despite
13

Patricia Mangnall Benefits and Problems of Religious Rights in Prison this widely held belief, there are reports that UK prison officials repositioned toilets so that
Muslim inmates do not have to use them while facing Mecca. ( Brussells Journal, 2006)
In trying to accommodate all the different religious beliefs of various prisoners, prison administrators have encountered many legal battles. Nine Muslim inmates of the Westchester
County Jail filed a lawsuit in 2005 claiming religious bias since the jail offered kosher meats for observant Jews, but generally only vegetarian meals for devout Muslims. Halal meat was only served twice a year on religious occasions. Under a settlement approved by a federal judge, the Westchester County jail now must serve four Halal meat dishes a week for Muslim inmates who request them. (Associated Press, 2008)
A Missouri prison inmate was once known as a white supremacist. However, he has now appeared in federal court, declaring he is Jewish and that his soul will be in jeopardy if he is forced to eat non-kosher food. The inmate filed a federal lawsuit stating that prison officials repeatedly denied his requests for kosher food, violating both federal law and his constitutional right of religious expression. (Patrick, 2008)
In California, a Sikh prison inmate sued the county for violating his religious rights by refusing to allow him to wear a turban. Sikh men are required by their faith to cover their heads at all times. Wearing a turban is one of the Sikh religion's central requirements. The
American Civil Liberties Union backed the case. (BBC News, 2005)
The American Civil Liberties Union also filed a lawsuit claiming that a Wyoming State
Penitentiary policy restricting prisoners' mealtimes violates the constitutional rights of two
Muslim inmates. At issue is an alleged "20-minute rule" requiring inmates to eat their meals
14

Patricia Mangnall Benefits and Problems of Religious Rights in Prison within 20 minutes after the food is delivered to a cell or common dining area. The lawsuit asked that the Muslim inmates to be exempted from the rule because it forces them to choose between eating and practicing their religion, since meals arrive at the same time as prayers.
(Associated Press, 2008)
The American Civil Liberties Union of Southern California filed a federal lawsuit on behalf of a Native American inmate who has faced serious disciplinary sanctions -- including the loss of all visitation rights -- for his refusal to comply with the grooming policy requiring that all male inmates hair be no longer than three inches in length. The inmate’s religious beliefs prohibit him from cutting his hair except upon the death of a loved one. (ACLU, 2004)
In addition, the 7th Circuit Court of Appeals has ruled that inmates' religious liberties include allowing atheists to conduct study groups. So long as the atheists consider it a matter of religion and religious liberty, prison officials must respect their wishes as much as the wishes of
Christians. (Kaufman v McGaughtry, 2005)
Depending on the state and prison, different courts can have different views on religious freedoms. In one case, judges found that prisoners worshipping in more conventional religions such as Catholicism and Hinduism were given access to candles, incense, and crosses, and all prisoners were routinely given access to bathrobes and boxing robes. Yet at another prison, prisoners who professed to be of the Wiccan faith were not allowed to have these items. It was explained that ‘sulfur was an explosive ingredient; the white hooded robe resembled Ku Klux
Klan robes and might provoke adverse prisoner reaction; candles could be used to make timing devices and impressions of keys; hollow statues could conceal contraband; incense could
15

Patricia Mangnall Benefits and Problems of Religious Rights in Prison disguise the odor of marijuana; and a kitchen timer could be used to make a detonation device.’
In this case, the judge afforded the prison administration a certain amount of latitude to maintain order and discipline in the prison. (Eilers, 2003)
The disciplinary routine of a prison clearly tries to sever the inmate from previous communities, attachments, and identities. Uniform clothing, hairstyles, living quarters, food, and routines detach a person from individualized identities. Prison officials must consider whether the fostering of religious sources of meaning and identity are beneficial or harmful to the overall purpose of the institution. (Evans, 1997)
The intent of this research was to see if any one religion was favored more than others.
The outcome was that while some received more items of worship, others received more days off from work, and still others received better dietary considerations. In addition to this, some of the religions required an extreme dedication on the part of the prisoner if they wanted to partake in any religious accommodations. The Technical Reference Manual is a guide that helps determine what is ‘fair’ and accurate for each religious expression in prison, but it is not conclusive. In the end, this research raised more questions than it answered.
Studies have shown that the more religiously active an inmate is in prison, the less likely he will be a repeat offender after release. (Law Library, 2008) While many argue that the prisoners should be able to follow their religion in prison, there are others who argue that if they had followed their religion, they wouldn’t be in prison. For some, being behind bars can be like a refuge — an ideal time for spiritual reflection, a perfect place for finding religion and
16

Patricia Mangnall Benefits and Problems of Religious Rights in Prison appreciating its value. (Gomez, 2006) For others it can be a time of boredom or hate. Prison administrators must dedicate a lot of time, money and resources to ensuring that every prisoner’s religious needs are met – while at the same time also ensuring security within the prison. Providing prisoners with the ability to worship may actually help to reduce recidivism rates. However, some prisoners may be insincere about their religious conversion and are merely trying to find the best living arrangement for serving out their sentence. Some prisoners may feel the need to ‘join’ a religion, because the hassle of daily worship is worth the protection provided by their religious brothers within the prison. Others may feel that getting the chance to socialize is worth being a vegetarian. Many inmates are good at conning, and some may feel that playing a role is better than boredom.
A more in-depth examination needs to be done on the benefits of religion and religious expression within prison. Future studies should examine how many prisoners maintain their religion once they are released from prison and how many of the prisons religions provide support to the inmate after release. Another interesting topic would be how religious conversion within prison is related to the length of prison sentence. Studies have shown that those serving short term sentences adapt quickly, do their time and leave. Prisoners who serve longer sentences experience a longer, more complex adaptation. (Thomas & Zaitzow, 2006)
Research also needs to be conducted to determine why groups like Islam and Ásatru are becoming the fastest growing religions in prison, and why conversion to Christian faiths is on the decline. Last, since larger prisons are able to provide for more diverse religious populations, research should be done to determine if this diversity unintentionally contributes to the growth of extremist religions.
17

Patricia Mangnall
Religious Beliefs and Practices
TRM
Required
Daily
Observances
Weekly
Monthly
Occasional
Buddhism acts of devotion, meditation chanting group meeting meet on full moon at least 1
Hindu Islam prayer, mantras
5 daily prayers and ablutions group meeting none weekly prayer none up to 22
5 prayer times during
Ramadan
Judaism
3 daily prayers
2 Sabbath services none none listed
Benefits & Problems of Religion in Prison
Moorish
Nation of Islam
Religion
Native
American
Odinism/
Ásatru
2 daily prayers
Friday worship/
Sunday
School none
3
5 daily prayers and ritual washing
Jumah
Prayer, 2 study meetings none
1 daily prayer sweat lodge, talking circles none
3 daily prayers, but not required weekly studies, not required none
33, often can be observed during regular meetings
Protestant Rastafarian prayers, meditation, scripture readings none specified
Roman
Catholic**
Sikh
Dharma
Wicca daily prayers recitation and cleansing personal unique rituals for daily devotion weekly service no specific, some worship on
Saturdays weekly Mass
Sunday
Worship
Service
Weekly study time communion at least monthly none listed none listed none none
12
(including
Holy Week and
Advent), plus 17 often viewed as
National
Holidays
1 week long
"conference"
- Nyabinghi
4, plus 5 other special observances
15 8
Holy Days
Vesak Day, or
3 other days, but not both.
2 2
9, 4 Public Fast days, 3 contemporary
Holidays
2 3 2* 4 3
Personal
Items
Congregate
Items
3
0
2
8
12
2
7
7
5
13
6
4
7
11
5
13
3
13
Total 3 10 14 14 18 10 18 18 16
* Due to the large variety of tribal beliefs, these Holy Days were established by the Federal Government: American Indian Days, September 24-25.
**Eastern Rite Catholicism is incorporated into the Roman Catholic category, for purposes of this chart.
3
2
4
6
6
9
31
40
2
7
0
7
0
4
19
23
18

Patricia Mangnall
Religious Beliefs and Practices
TRM
Buddhism
Special
Dietary
Standard
Medical
Prohibitions
V/SS none, individual basis
Hindu
V/SS
Benefits & Problems of Religion in Prison
Islam Judaism
Moorish
Nation of
Islam
Religion
Native
American
No pork, blood, alcohol, carnivorous animals
Follow Kosher Law, special meals for
Passover, meals after Public Fast, must join the
Alternative Diet
Program
No Pork/
SS
No Pork/
V/SS, once a year Holy
Meal
None
Odinism/
Ásatru
Protestant Rastafarian
Roman
Catholic**
Pork only at Yule/SS
None
I-Tal foods
V/SS
SS/abstain from meat or fast on some Holy
Days
Sikh
Dharma
SS
Wicca
SS none no alcohol based medication none none none none none none cosmetic surgery, blood transfusions, birth control prohibited abortion prohibited none none
Physical
Nature
(beards, hair, clothing, etc) none
Amulet not permitted
Kurda shirt may be worn during
Chapel
Services
Inmate access to
'tefillin', approval for electric razor, females do not wear slacks, no physical contact with the opposite sex, inmates permitted to wear yarmulkah
Fezzes and lapel pins worn during
Chapel only
Bow ties, lapel pins and Pill
Box caps worn in
Chapel only no nudity allowed in ceremonies, medicine bag may be worn around neck, hair may not be cut*** oath ring used only during worship none none
Work proscription
Vesak Day, or
3 other days, but not both.
2 Holy
Days
2 Holy Days
1st 2 days of Rosh
Hashanah, Yom
Kippur, 1st 2 and
8th and 9th days of
Succos, 1st 2 and last 2 days of
Passover, 1st 2 days of Shauvos
2 3 2
4, with wardens approval
3 3 6 2
V= Vegetarian, SS= Self-Selection
**Eastern Rite Catholicism is incorporated into the Roman Catholic category, for purposes of this chart.
***Refers to items not necessarily listed in the TRM, but religious beliefs and customs that go against prison policy, however, inmates have proceeded with litigation in order to practice these beliefs in prison.
0
19
Dreadlocks are part of faith (the length is not addressed in the TRM)
Brown
Scapular may be worn upon request uncut hair, beard and wearing of turban do not follow prison regulations but have been challenged by inmates

Patricia Mangnall Benefits & Problems of Religion in Prison
Brussells Journal. (2006, April). Is this a Joke? Retrieved April 2008, from Brussells Journal: http://www.brusselsjournal.com/node/1003
ACLU. (2004, March 31). ACLU Files Religious Liberty Lawsuit on Behalf of Native American Who Refuses
to Cut Hair. Retrieved March 27, 2008, from ACLU: http://www.aclu.org/religion/gen/16235prs20040331.html
Ammar, N. H., Weaver, R. R., & Saxon, S. (2004, August 24). Muslims in Prison:A Case Study from Ohio
State Prisons. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 414-428.
Anti-Defamation League. (2002). Dangerous Convictions: Extremist Recruitment in America's Prisons.
New York: Anti-Defamation League.
Associated Press. (2008, March 22). US jail reaches deal on meals for Muslim inmates. Retrieved March
30, 2008, from International Herald Tribune: http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2008/03/22/america/NA-
GEN-US-Halal-Jail-Meals.php
Associated Press. (2008, April 3). Wyo. Lawsuit Alleges Prison Mealtime Violates Muslim Inmates'
Freedom of Religion. Retrieved March 29, 2008, from Fox News: http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,346291,00.html
BBC News. (2005, May 20). Sikh sues in US jail turban row. BBC News.
Bohm, R., & Haley, K. (2005). Introduction to Criminal Justice. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Brooks, L. (1997). Traveling the Spiritual Path: The Struggle for Native American Religious Freedom in
Prison. Native American Political Issues.
Clear, T. R. (2000). The Value of Religion in Prison: An Inmate Perspective. Journal of Contemporary
Criminal Justice , 53-74.
Eilers, D. (2003). Pagans and the Law. Franklin Lakes: The Career Press.
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