The Kidney is responsible for filtering toxins out of the blood and maintaining osmoregulation.
1.
Define osmoregulation.
2.
In the space below, draw a simple diagram of the kidney. Label and state the roles of:
Renal vein, renal artery, cortex, medulla, pelvis, ureter.
3.
The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney.
Label the diagram below with these structures and their functions:
Afferent arteriole, glomerulus, efferent arteriole, renal capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, Loop of
Henle with descending and ascending loops, distal convoluted tubule, colecting duct.

4.
Explain ultrafiltration in the renal capsule.
Include the roles of arterioles, fenestrations, capillary wall and basement membrane.
5.
Which components of the blood are not filtered out by ultrafiltration? Why?
6.
Outline selective reabsorption in the proximal convoluted tubule.
By which methods are water, salts and glucose reabsorbed?
7.
What structural features of the proximal convoluted tubule assist it in this function?
8.
Explain the functions of the loop of Henle.
How are salts removed in the descending and ascending loops?
What is the effect on the concentration of the medulla and the urine?

9.
The water balance of the blood is finally adjusted in the collecting duct.
Explain how this works.
10.
When a person is dehydrated, ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) is released into the blood.
What is the the effect of ADH on: a.
The walls of the collecting duct? b.
Water uptake into the blood? c.
Concentration of the urine?
11.
Consider this data table: a.
Calculate the concentration of urea in the urine. b.
Why is such a large proportion of urea removed from the blood? c.
Explain why no proteins and macromolecules are present in the filtate or urine. d.
100% of glucose is reclaimed. Explain how this occurs.

12.
Define pathogen.
13.
Give named examples of the four types of pathogen.
14.
List five methods by which pathogens can be transmitted.
15.
Explain why antibiotics are not effective against viruses.
16.
Distinguish between bacteriocidal and bacteriostatic antibiotics.
17.
Outline the emergence of Multiple-Resistant bacteria as a result of overuse of antibiotics and subsequent evolution by natural selection.
18.
How do the skin and mucous membrane act as the body’s primary defense against infection?
19.
Blood clotting can prevent further entry of pathogens into the blood and stops bleeding.
Draw a simple flowchart to outline blood clotting as a metabolic pathway.
Include the roles of platelets, clotting factors, thrombin, fibrinogen, erythrocytes.

20.
Draw a diagram to show how a phagocyte engulfs a pathogen by phagocytosis.
What is the role of lysozymes in this process?
21.
What is the role of the following types of cells in defense against infectious diseases?
Phagocytes (macrophages)
B-cells
T-cells
Plasma cells
Memory cells
22.
Distinguish between antigens (epitopes) and antibodies.
23.
When a pathogen invades an organism, this is called a ‘challenge’
Outline the body’s ‘response’ to this challenge, leading to antibody production.

24.
What is polyclonal selection?
25.
How do antibodies allow the body to defeat a pathogen?
26.
How does clonal selection when fighting a pathogen lead to immunity against that same pathogen?
27.
Distinguish between passive, active, artificial and natural immunity with examples of each.
28.
Annotate the graph to show how vaccination (immunisation) works.

29.
Name one disease that has been eradicated through vaccination programmes.
30.
Discuss the benefits and dangers of vaccination programmes.
Benefits Dangers
31.
DefineHIV
32.
Define AIDS
33.
Distinguish between HIV and AIDS.
34.
Explain the effects of HIV on the immune system.
35.
Discuss the cause, tranmission, social and economic impacts of HIV.

36.
How might HIV/AIDS affect developed nations differently to developing nations such as regions of Africa?
37.
Suggest reasons why a vaccine for HIV is difficult to produce.
38.
The ELISA test can be used as a diagnostic test for HIV. a.
What does ELISA stand for?
39.
Tests such as the ELISA test and the HCG test for pregnancy use a large number of antibodies. A marker is attached that changes colour when these antibodies are activated by the presence of a specific antigen (such as HIV or HCG hormone). a.
Outline the process of monoclonal antibody production.
Include the roles of B-cells, tumour cells and hybridomas. b.
Name one therapeutic use of monoclonal antibodies.
40.
List three diseases (other than HIV) that can be sexually transmitted and their effects.

41.
Human Pappiloma Virus (HPV) is a pathogen that has been linked to cervical cancer. a.
How might a virus lead to cancer? b.
How could the following protect the reproductive health of women?
The HPV vaccine
Regular cervical smear tests
42.
43.
What are the roles of the following components in movement in the body?
Nerves
Muscles
Bones
Joints
Tendons
Ligaments
44.
In the space below, draw and label a simple diagram of a human elbow joint.
Include the radius, ulna, humerus, biceps and triceps. Label and state the functions of the joint capsule, synovial fluid and cartilage.
45.
Outline how the biceps and triceps work antagonistically in ‘bend’ and ‘extend’ of the arm.

46.
Compare these types of joints:
Type of joint
Elbow hinge
Knee Shoulder/ Hip
Range of movement
Hinge movement with some pivoting possible
47.
Label this section of a striated muscle cell with the names and functions of each structure.
48.
Which part of the muscle cell is depolarized when an action potential reaches the neuromuscular junction?
49.
Why are there so many mitochondria in a muscle cell?

50.
The electron micrograph below shows a section of a myofibril. a.
Label the dark and light bands and z-lines. b.
How many full sarcomeres are shown in this image? c.
Draw a simple diagram of the corresponding sarcomeres, showing the actin and myosin fibres (with myosin heads)
51.
Annotate the diagrams below to show how muscle contraction occurs in a sarcomere.
Include the roles of sarcolemma, sarcoplasmic reticulum, Ca2+, actin binding sites, cross bridges, myosin heads, ATP.

52.
Compare these two electron micrographs of a skeletal muscle sarcomere.
Contracted or relaxed?
Sarcomere length
Z-bands
H-bands
Light bands
Dark bands
No change
No change
Shorter
Closer
53.
What can be deduced from this in terms of relative roles of actin and myosin fibres?