The law of diminishing returns: woodland birds respond to native vegetation cover at
multiple spatial scales and over time
Ross B.Cunningham, David B. Lindenmayer, Mason Crane, Damian R. Michael,
Philip S. Barton, Philip Gibbons, Sachiko Okada, Karen Ikin, John A.R. Stein
Table S1. Complete list of observed bird species (n=171) recorded in surveys conducted
between 2002 and 2010 in the South West Slopes of New South Wales, south-eastern
Australia. The classification of birds of birds of conservation concerns follows MontagueDrake et al. (2009) and the classification of woodland bird species follows Silcocks et al.
(2005). The 49 species with sufficient data for landscape and farm analysis of the proxy
abundance measure are marked * and the 35 species with sufficient data for site analysis of
the proxy abundance measure are marked **. Nomenclature is taken from Christidis & Boles
(2008).
Apostlebird
Australasian Grebe
*Australasian Pipit
Australasian Shoveler
Australian Hobby
Australian King-Parrot
**Australian Magpie
Australian Owlet-nightjar
Australian Pelican
**Australian Raven
Australian Reed-Warbler
Australian Shelduck
Australian White Ibis
Australian Wood Duck
Banded Lapwing
Black Falcon
Black-chinned Honeyeater
Struthidea cinerea
Tachybaptus novaehollandiae
Anthus novaeseelandiae
Anas rhynchotis
Falco longipennis
Alisterus scapularis
Cracticus tibicen
Aegotheles cristatus
Pelecanus conspicillatus
Corvus coronoides
Acrocephalus stentoreus
Tadorna tadornoides
Threskiornis molucca
Chenonetta jubata
Vanellus tricolor
Falco subniger
Melithreptus gularis
1
x
x
x
x
x
Non-native
Scientific Name
Woodlanddependent
Name
Conservation
concern
Christidis, L., & Boles, W. (2008) Systematics and taxonomy of Australian birds. CSIRO Publishing,
Collingwood.
Montague-Drake, R.M., Lindenmayer, D.B. & Cunningham, R.B. (2009) Factors affecting site
occupancy by woodland bird species of conservation concern. Biological Conservation, 142,
2896–2903.
Silcocks, A., Tzaros, C., Weston. M. & and Olsen, P. (2005) An interim guild classification for
woodland and grassland birds in Australia. Birds Australia Supplementary Report to State of
the Environment Report 2006.
Coracina novaehollandiae
Artamus cinereus
Elseyornis melanops
Elanus axillaris
Tribonyx ventralis
Himantopus himantopus
Northiella haematogaster
Oxyura australis
Entomyzon cyanotis
Falco berigora
Accipiter fasciatus
Coturnix ypsilophora
Cincloramphus cruralis
Acanthiza pusilla
Climacteris picumnus
Melithreptus brevirostris
Cacomantis variolosus
Melopsittacus undulatus
Acanthiza reguloides
Burhinus grallarius
Acanthiza uropygialis
Nymphicus hollandicus
Accipiter cirrocephalus
Turdus merula
Phaps chalcoptera
Sturnus vulgaris
Phylidonyris pyrrhopterus
Ocyphaps lophotes
Falcunculus frontatus
Epthianura tricolor
Platycercus elegans
Geopelia cuneata
Stagonopleura guttata
Eurystomus orientalis
Taeniopygia bichenovii
Artamus cyanopterus
Ardea alba
Platycercus eximius
Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris
Eopsaltria australis
Carduelis carduelis
Petrochelidon ariel
2
Non-native
**Black-faced Cuckoo-shrike
Black-faced Woodswallow
Black-fronted Dotterel
Black-shouldered Kite
Black-tailed Native-hen
Black-winged Stilt
Blue Bonnet
Blue-billed Duck
Blue-faced Honeyeater
Brown Falcon
Brown Goshawk
Brown Quail
**Brown Songlark
Brown Thornbill
**Brown Treecreeper
Brown-headed Honeyeater
Brush Cuckoo
Budgerigar
Buff-rumped Thornbill
Bush Stone-curlew
Chestnut-rumped Thornbill
*Cockatiel
Collared Sparrowhawk
Common Blackbird
*Common Bronzewing
**Common Starling
Crescent Honeyeater
**Crested Pigeon
**Crested Shrike-tit
Crimson Chat
*Crimson Rosella
Diamond Dove
*Diamond Firetail
Dollarbird
Double-barred Finch
**Dusky Woodswallow
Eastern Great Egret
**Eastern Rosella
Eastern Spinebill
Eastern Yellow Robin
European Goldfinch
Fairy Martin
Woodlanddependent
Scientific Name
Conservation
concern
Name
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Cacomantis flabelliformis
Petroica phoenicea
Lichenostomus fuscus
Eolophus roseicapillus
Callocephalon fimbriatum
Pachycephala pectoralis
Cisticola exilis
Phalacrocorax carbo
Cracticus torquatus
Strepera versicolor
Rhipidura albiscapa
Colluricincla harmonica
Anas gracilis
Pomatostomus temporalis
Aythya australis
Melanodryas cucullata
Chalcites baslis
Mirafra javanica
Passer domesticus
Microeca fascinans
Dacelo novaeguineae
Myiagra rubecula
Cacatua sanguinea
Hieraaetus morphnoides
Philemon citreogularis
Glossopsitta pusilla
Microcarbo melanoleucos
Corvus mellori
Anthochaera chrysoptera
Cacatua tenuirostris
Grallina cyanoleuca
Lophochroa leadbeateri
Vanellus miles
Artamus personatus
Dicaeum hirundinaceum
Glossopsitta concinna
Falco cenchroides
Philemon corniculatus
Manorina melanocephala
Oriolus sagittatus
Anas superciliosa
Turnix varius
3
Non-native
Fan-tailed Cuckoo
Flame Robin
Fuscous Honeyeater
**Galah
Gang-gang Cockatoo
Golden Whistler
Golden-headed Cisticola
Great Cormorant
*Grey Butcherbird
Grey Currawong
*Grey Fantail
**Grey Shrike-thrush
Grey Teal
Grey-crowned Babbler
Hardhead
Hooded Robin
Horsfield's Bronze-Cuckoo
Horsfield's Bushlark
*House Sparrow
*Jacky Winter
**Laughing Kookaburra
Leaden Flycatcher
Little Corella
Little Eagle
**Little Friarbird
Little Lorikeet
Little Pied Cormorant
Little Raven
Little Wattlebird
Long-billed Corella
**Magpie-lark
Major Mitchell's Cockatoo
Masked Lapwing
Masked Woodswallow
*Mistletoebird
Musk Lorikeet
Nankeen Kestrel
**Noisy Friarbird
**Noisy Miner
Olive-backed Oriole
Pacific Black Duck
Painted Button-quail
Woodlanddependent
Scientific Name
Conservation
concern
Name
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Grantiella picta
Cacomantis pallidus
Geopelia striata
Falco peregrinus
Cracticus nigrogularis
Phalacrocorax varius
Strepera graculina
Glossopsitta porphyrocephala
Merops ornatus
Anthochaera carunculata
Todiramphus pyrrhopygius
Neochmia temporalis
Petroica goodenovii
Erythrogonys cinctus
Psephotus haematonotus
Myiagra inquieta
Cincloramphus mathewsi
Pachycephala rufiventris
Todiramphus sanctus
Myiagra cyanoleuca
Petroica boodang
Chalcites lucidus
Zosterops lateralis
Ninox novaeseelandiae
Aphelocephala leucopsis
Chthonicola sagittata
Streptopelia chinensis
Circus assimilis
Pardalotus punctatus
Threskiornis spinicollis
Pardalotus striatus
Acanthiza lineata
Plectorhyncha lanceolata
Coturnix pectoralis
Cacatua galerita
Malurus cyaneus
Polytelis swainsonii
Circus approximans
Lathamus discolor
Podargus strigoides
Petrochelidon nigricans
Daphoenositta chrysoptera
4
x
x
x
x
Non-native
Painted Honeyeater
Pallid Cuckoo
**Peaceful Dove
Peregrine Falcon
**Pied Butcherbird
Pied Cormorant
Pied Currawong
Purple-crowned Lorikeet
*Rainbow Bee-eater
**Red Wattlebird
Red-backed Kingfisher
Red-browed Finch
Red-capped Robin
Red-kneed Dotterel
**Red-rumped Parrot
**Restless Flycatcher
**Rufous Songlark
**Rufous Whistler
*Sacred Kingfisher
Satin Flycatcher
Scarlet Robin
Shining Bronze-Cuckoo
Silvereye
Southern Boobook
Southern Whiteface
Speckled Warbler
Spotted Dove
Spotted Harrier
Spotted Pardalote
Straw-necked Ibis
**Striated Pardalote
Striated Thornbill
Striped Honeyeater
Stubble Quail
*Sulphur-crested Cockatoo
**Superb Fairy-wren
**Superb Parrot
Swamp Harrier
Swift Parrot
Tawny Frogmouth
Tree Martin
Varied Sittella
Woodlanddependent
Scientific Name
Conservation
concern
Name
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Aquila audax
Smicrornis brevirostris
Hirundo neoxena
Gerygone fusca
Haliastur sphenurus
Coracina papuensis
Pomatostomus superciliosus
Sericornis frontalis
Artamus superciliosus
Lichenostomus leucotis
Egretta novaehollandiae
Epthianura albifrons
Melithreptus lunatus
Ardea pacifica
Lichenostomus penicillatus
Gerygone albogularis
Cormobates leucophaea
Corcorax melanorhamphos
Lalage sueurii
Rhipidura leucophrys
Leucosarcia picata
Acanthiza nana
Platalea flavipes
Lichenostomus chrysops
Acanthiza chrysorrhoa
Calyptorhynchus funereus
Lichenostomus melanops
Taeniopygia guttata
5
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Non-native
Wedge-tailed Eagle
**Weebill
**Welcome Swallow
Western Gerygone
Whistling Kite
White-bellied Cuckoo-shrike
White-browed Babbler
White-browed Scrubwren
**White-browed Woodswallow
White-eared Honeyeater
White-faced Heron
White-fronted Chat
White-naped Honeyeater
White-necked Heron
**White-plumed Honeyeater
White-throated Gerygone
White-throated Treecreeper
**White-winged Chough
**White-winged Triller
**Willie Wagtail
Wonga Pigeon
*Yellow Thornbill
Yellow-billed Spoonbill
Yellow-faced Honeyeater
**Yellow-rumped Thornbill
Yellow-tailed Black-Cockatoo
Yellow-tufted Honeyeater
Zebra Finch
Woodlanddependent
Scientific Name
Conservation
concern
Name
Table S2. Variance components for biodiversity measures at the farm scale
Random term
Measure
landscape
year
Farm within
landscape
Landscape.year
Residual
Component
A
0.60
0
0.71
R
13
3.9
49
C
0
0
42
A
21
0
25
Component after
fitting vegetation
cover
R
C
A
2
0
0.58
0.5 0
0
17
0.34 0.28
4.9 0
0.45
12.4 0.66 1.12
9.5
24
0
58
16
39
6.4 0
0.45
13.6 0.66 1.12
R
C
6.9 0
2.0 0
25.4 0.47
% of total for an
observation
% explained by
vegetation cover
R
71
75
34
C
0
0
28
A
3.3
0
61
-
0
0
0
0
Table S3. Parameters and associated statistics for relationships between measures of
biodiversity on a farm and log % native vegetation cover at the farm scale
Parameter
Measure
Constant
log % farm vegetation cover
(between farms)
log % farm vegetation cover
(within farms)
Estimate
R
C
A
29
2.13 0.15
3.3
0.35 0.63
-0.16 -0.20
-0.5
R
1.3
0.73
s.e.
C
0.12
0.11
A
0.19
0.17
<0.001 0.003 <0.001
1.7
0.30
0.46
0.9
R
p-value
C
A
0.5
0.30
Table S4. Variance components for richness and abundance at the site scale for all scales in
the hierarchical design (i.e. the site, farm and landscape scales and over time)
Random term
Component
% of total for an
observation
Measure
Landscape
Year
Farm within
landscape
Landscape.year
Site in farm in
landscape
Farm within
landscape by year
Residual
R
1.6
0
1.3
A
0.4
0
0
R
8
0
6
A
12
0
0
2.3
7.5
0.2
1.2
11
36
5.7
34
2.5
6.1
0.3
0.07
2
1.9
7.6
1.6
37
46
6
Component after
fitting vegetation
cover
R
A
0.4
0.4
0
0
1
0
% explained by
vegetation cover
R
75
23
A
0
-
0.2
1.1
19
0
8
0.3
0.08
-
-
7.8
1.6
-
0
Table S5. Parameters and associated statistics for relationships between richness and
abundance and log % native vegetation cover at the site and landscape scales
Parameter
Measure
Constant
log % landscape vegetation
cover (between landscapes)
log % landscape vegetation
cover (within landscapes)
log % site vegetation cover
(between sites)
Estimate
R
A
13.4
-2.8
1.04
-
R
0.40
0.66
A
0.20
-
R
A
0.13
-
1.01
-
0.42
-
0.02
-
0.8
0.19
0.21
0.08
7
s.e.
p-value
<0.001
0.03