Chapter Summary
Rhetoric refers to the art of public communication and can take on several forms. This chapter defines rhetoric and explore these forms: political speeches, advertisements, social media posts, music, or even architecture.
Characteristics of Rhetoric
Rhetoric revolves around three main characteristics: (1) it is discursive, (2) it refers to public communication, and (3) it is functional. Being discursive means that rhetoric relies on words and symbols to create and exchange meanings. In rhetoric, such communication is specifically directed at a public audience . Rhetoric serves a function for both the audience to which the message is addressed and the one who delivers it (the rhetor).
Aristotle
One of the most influential figures of rhetoric is the Greek philosopher Aristotle . Aristotle defined three genres of rhetoric: deliberative , epideictic , and forensic (see “Genres in
Rhetorical Theory”). He also outlined three “proofs” a rhetor could use to make persuasive claims: pathos (the rhetor’s ability to invoke emotions), ethos (the rhetor’s ability to be perceived as a credible figure), and logos (the rhetor’s ability to use logical reasoning). These three rhetorical proofs are negotiated by the rhetor based on the audience’s needs and expectations. That is, rhetoric is transactional.
The emphasis put on the audience in rhetoric can be illustrated through Aristotle’s concept of enthymeme . Enthymemes are three-part deductive arguments (major premise, minor premise, and conclusion) in which the major premise is implicit. The audience therefore fills in the gaps to arrive at the conclusion on its own.
Understanding Communication Theory, by Stephen Croucher © Taylor & Francis 2015

Aristotle’s theory of rhetoric points out three main aspects relevant to crafting a persuasive message: (1) discovering persuasive possibilities that are available (2) since rhetoric is functional and different situations require different means of persuasion. The (3) audience is a central element and the more a rhetor knows about the demographics of an audience, the more persuasive s/he can be.
The Rhetorical Situation
Aristotle’s theory is visible in modern theories of rhetoric. One relevant example is the notion of the rhetorical situation developed by Bitzer (1968). This concept emphasizes rhetoric as a situational, contextual practice, which is reactive rather than active .
Rhetorical situations are composed of three parts: exigence, audience, and constraints.
Rhetorical exigence refers to things that can be (1) identified with rhetoric and (2) resolved through human action. For instance, a hurricane is a non-rhetorical exigence as it cannot be modified by rhetorical actions. However, the aftermath of a hurricane qualifies as a rhetorical exigence.
The second part of Bitzer’s rhetorical situation is the audience , which consists of a group of real people at whom the rhetor directs his/her discourse. The audience is defined as not only passive listeners but potential actors of change.
Constraints refer to values, opinions, and motives of individuals from the audience which can limit a rethor’s range of persuasive possibilities.
The Classical View
The classical view of rhetoric—embodied in Aristotle and Bitzer’s ideas—builds on the assumptions that (1) audiences are stable and identifiable, (2) an orator is successful if an audience agrees with his/her position, and finally the classical view (3) seeks to identify and explain the reason why particular discourses succeed or fail.
Understanding Communication Theory, by Stephen Croucher © Taylor & Francis 2015

The Imagined Audience
The classical view of rhetoric has been challenged by contemporary communication technology and social media. As a response, rhetorical theorists have developed new concepts such as the imagined audience . From this viewpoint the audience is viewed as something a rhetor can symbolically create through their discourse.
Black (1970) developed the concept of second persona . The “first persona” identifies the implied author while the “second persona” identifies the author’s implied audience. The concept suggests that rhetoric can reach out to an audience without being explicitly addressed to that audience.
McGee (1975) contributed to the notion of imagined audience through the analysis of the phrase “ the people
”. McGee argued the idea of “people” as a collective entity is a rhetorical product. “The people” includes some individuals and leaves others out in ways that serve the message that needs to be conveyed. That is, the rhetoric creates the audience, and when the rhetoric changes so does the audience.
Genres in Rhetorical Theory
Genre rhetorical theory sets out to classify communication into different categories. These categories are not mutually exclusive and one speech can belong to more than one genre.
Identifying the component and constraints of genres helps to analyze how they influence both the communication and the audience.
Aristotle delineated three genre forms: forensic, deliberative and epideictic. Forensic oratory was primarily involved in the judicial process to either accuse or defend an individual.
Forensic speeches focus on the past to establish individuals as guilty or innocent.
Deliberative oratory focuses on the future and is frequently associated with legislative
Understanding Communication Theory, by Stephen Croucher © Taylor & Francis 2015

speeches. Epideictic oratory is mostly understood as ceremonial speeches used to praise or blame.
Cicero identified three categories an orator should combine to make a powerful speech. An orator should aim to (1) instruct ( docere ) his/her audience, (2) move ( movere ) his/her audience toward a specific belief or action while (3) entertaining or pleasing ( delectare ) his/her audience.
Fisher (1970) outlined four categories based on the motives of the speakers.
(1) Affirmation focuses on the creation of a particular mental image for the audience.
(2) Reaffirmation is used to revitalize an image for the audience. (3) Purification refers to the process of modifying and refining a previously established image for the audience.
(4) Subversion is an attempt to undermine or attack an image. Apologia , one of the most common genres within rhetoric, is the art of expressing remorse for some type of wrongdoing.
Metaphors in Rhetorical Theory
Contrarily to similes used to make explicit comparisons using words “like” or “as”, metaphors implicitly suggest certain qualities are identical from one item to another.
Rhetorical theory sets out to (1) identify metaphors used in communication, (2) classify the qualities implied by the metaphors used, (3) examine how those qualities attempt to influence our views, values and actions, and (4) express a scholarly opinion as regards the appropriateness of using such metaphor.
Kenneth Burke
Burke had a significant impact on the study of rhetoric. Burke used the term dramatism , which centers human action in language use. Burke argued that language is action. One of
Burke’s key contributions to the study of rhetoric is the dramatistic pentad , which consists
Understanding Communication Theory, by Stephen Croucher © Taylor & Francis 2015

of five terms: Act, Scene, Agent, Agency, and Purpose. In any statement about motives, one of the pentad terms will be dominant. The pentad provides a framework to critically assess the ways in which a rhetor articulates motives in a given discourse. Another key concept of
Burke’s work is identification . Burke suggested that identification lays the groundwork for persuasion.
Understanding Communication Theory, by Stephen Croucher © Taylor & Francis 2015