AQA A -GCSE Geography
Unit 2 – Human Geography
Revision Booklet
Question 1 – Population
Change
Question 2 – Urban
environment
Question 6 – Tourism
Date of Unit 2 exam (2014) – Thursday 22nd May
Name: ______________________________________________________
Unit 2 – Human Geography Revision Guide
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Read the command words of the question correct. Highlight it and look back at while
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Command Words
Unit 2 – Human Geography
‘Population Change’
Question 1 on the human paper
Revision checklist –
1
Section
Population
Structure
Content
Definitions
Birth Rate = number of live births per 1000
Death Rate – number of deaths per 1000
Natural Increase = Natural Change: the difference between birth
rate and death rate. If BR is higher than DR, population will
increase, vice versa if DR is higher than BR.
BR
Natural
Increase
DR
Other important definitions: Zero growth/ J-curve/ S- curve/
exponential growth/ life expectancy/
Population distribution
Sparse = not a lot of people live there
Dense = lots of people live there (compact)
Where is it more densely populated and where is it sparsely
Revised
populated. What might be the reasons for this?
2
Demographic
Transition Model
Example of
countries in
different stages
This is an important model to show how the population is changing
over time. It is not just a model for one country, but lots of
different countries can be applied to the model.
Stage 1 =
Indigenous
tribes
Stage 2 =
Afghanistan
Stage 3 = Kenya
Stage 4 = UK
Stage 5 = Japan
There are several reasons for the changes through the DTM, and
changes to the BR and DR are important.
Reasons
for
changes
in birth
rate
Stage 1-2
Stage 3-4
Stage 4-5
Many children
needed for
farming. Many
children die at a
young age.
Religious/social
encouragement.
No family planning
– birth
control/education.
(In Africa women
receive little
education and
marry young and
some governments
do not approve of
family planning).
Improved
medical care
and diet.
Fewer children
needed.
Family planning.
Good health.
Improving status
of women –
education and
career
orientated.
Later marriages.
(In Europe
one/two children
accepted family
size and average
cost of raising
child is £60
000).
Reasons
for
changes
in
death
rate
3
Factors
affecting
population
growth
Disease. Famine.
Poor medical
knowledge so many
children die.
Improvements Good health
in medical
care. Reliable
care, water
food supply.
supply and
sanitation.
Fewer
children die.
Agricultural change
Changes in agriculture occur early in a country’s development. Even at intermediate
levels, technology improves yields and saves labour. This frees some works for
industry and more rapid economic growth. In the industrial revolution in the UK,
factories needed a large work force, so for a while larger families were a benefit.
Soon, however, technological advantages reduced the need for labour, making
smaller families much more desirable.
Urbanisation
Rural to urban migration (moving home from a rural area to settle in a city) is
common in poorer countries as cities are believed to have greater opportunities,
and generally do. One major reason for such migration is to seek better
educational opportunities for children. Children’s labour is therefore of less value
in cities than in rural areas.
Education
As levels of educational achievement increase, bringing improved standards of
living, children become an economic disadvantage. Fewer children means parents
have more money to be spent on each one, giving them better future chances.
Many parents in poorer countries see education as their children’s best chance in
life.
Emancipation and status of women
As economies develop and education improves, opportunities for girls increase
alongside those of boys. With development a larger workforce is required, so
women must participate more in paid work outside the home. Reaching a good
standard of living in a household requires two incomes.
Over time, prejudge against women holding more senior positions at work reduces.
Equality increases and is perceived as not only acceptable but desirable. However,
achieving highly in any career requires a large amount of commitment, leaving less
opportunities to take maternity leave or care for children.
Some women make a decision to have children in later life, as they will have more
money after they have climbed up the ladder.
4
Population
Structure
Why do we take a census? What does it tell us about the population
structure? How often is it taken?
FAT BOTTOM
(HIGH BR)
and THIN
TOP (HIGH
FAT
BOTTOM
(high BR)
and top is
BELL JAR
shaped. SIDES
are getting
WIDER,
because BR is
BELL JAR
shaped. SIDES
are getting
WIDER,
because BR is
Low BR and
DR. Stable
population.
High amount
Population pyramids
Population structure means the 'make up' or composition of a
population. Looking at the population structure of a place shows how
the population is divided up between males and females of different
age groups. Population structure is usually shown using a population
pyramid. A population pyramid can be drawn up for any area, from a
whole continent or country to an individual town, city or village
Key things to know about population pyramids





5
The shape of a population pyramid can tell us a lot about an
area's population.
It gives us information about birth and death rates as well
as life expectancy.
A population pyramid tells us how many dependants there
are. There are two groups of dependants; young dependants
(aged below 15) and elderly dependants (aged over 65).
Dependants rely upon the economically active for economic
support.
Many LEDCs have a high number of young dependants, whilst
many MEDCs have a growing number of elderly dependants.
Sustainable
Sustainable population growth = is one where its growth and development
Population growth will not threaten the lives of future generations.
Different factors can affect the sustainable population growth of a
population
What changes
birth rates?
Desertification
6
YOUTHFUL
POPULATION
GROWTH: Case
Study 1: Any
African countryCase study 2.
How it was
controlled-China
ANTI NATAL
POLICY
China introduced this policy in 1979 when the population growth was
massive. This was China method of reducing the population growth.
The government limited each family to have only ONE child. This
has some differing effects.
Rules of the One Child Policy:
1) Must not marry until late 20s
2) Must only have one successful pregnancy
3) Must be sterilised or abort any children after first child
4) Would increase their salary by 5-10% if stuck to one child.
Penalties (if couples did not follow the rules)
1) 10% pay cut was enforced
2) The fine that was imposed was so large it would bankrupt
most households
3) The family would have to pay for education and health for
both children.
Evaluation – problems
1) Women were forced to have abortion as late as 9 months
2) Women were placed under massive pressure by their family,
and the ‘granny police’
3) Local government and central government had control over
people private lives.
4) Chinese society prefers boys; as a result many girls were
disregarded or allow die (female infanticide)
5) Chinese children have the reputation of been over indulged
and this results in ‘little emperors’
6) The population is
Evaluation – benefits
1) The previously thought famine was avoided
2) The population has been slowed down sufficiently to provide
enough food and jobs for the population
3) Many new industries have lifted millions out of poverty.
Changes to the policy from 1990s to the 2000s
1) Young couples who are only children are allow to have two
children
2) Less time is needed for child care, and this means it frees
up time for women to have a career. The attitude to having a
daughter has improved.
3) With an increase in wealth many people are breaking the rule
because they can afford the fines.
4) The policy is unlikely to relax because of there are still 1
millions more births than deaths, and a large percentage of
the population still live on less than $2 a day.
5) One of the major problems is the gender imbalance. There
are more than 60 million more men than women.
7
YOUTHFUL
POPULATION:
Case Study 2:
Kerala, India
Anti-natal policy
Kerala in India is an example of trying to reduce the population of
the country by offering different incentives to people who only
have one child.
In Kerala there have been a number of initiatives to reduce
population growth since 1980:
1. Women are being educated
Around half of all Indian women cannot read or write (illiterate).
However, in Kerala 85% of women are literate. Better educated
women are more likely to keep their children healthy.
2. Contraception is more widely available
3. The status of women has improved significantly
Women are no longer seen as a burden - they are regarded as an
asset. Traditionally in India when a woman gets married the family
have to pay money to the bridegroom's family. This is called a
dowry. However, in Kerala it is the bridegroom's family who pay a
dowry to the bride’s family.
8
YOUTHFUL
POPULATION:
Case study 3:
Indonesian
transmigration
How is it different to China-which is better and why?
Movement of people in Indonesia
Transmigration = the movement of people to different parts of one
country.
Goals of the policy:
 To move millions of Indonesians from the densely populated
inner islands such as Java, Bali and Madura to the less
densely populated outer islands, to achieve a more even
population distribution.
 To reduce poverty by providing land and new opportunities
for poor landless settlers to generate (create) income.
 To be able to exploit the resources of the outer islands
more effectively.
Objections
The programme has raised objections from human rights and
environmental campaigners.
The objections are
1. Indonesia's outer islands contain some 10% of the world's
remaining rainforest; the transmigration programme has
increased pressure on the natural forests and has led to the
loss of the forests;
2. Resettlement was used by the Government to control the
indigenous population on the outer islands (i.e. the tribes
that have always lived there)
3. Transmigration has broken the agreements over land rights
of the indigenous people and is aimed at the forced
integration of indigenous people and the new settlers from
Java;
9
Ageing
Population-Case
study the UK
The current Indonesian government dropped the migration policy.
Key words
Pension: Money that people save for during their working years to
use when they retire.
Dependency ratio: The balance between people who are
independent (working and paying taxes) and those who depend on
them.
Social Services: A government help scheme to help people who are
vulnerable. People who require more help.
Opportunities and issues of an ageing population
Opportunities
Issues
Older people have great knowledge to
pass onto the younger generations.
The demand for healthcare increases
because more illness occurs when
people are older.
There are more elderly people and less
people working, therefore taxes have to
increase to pay for pensions.
In MEDCs people are expected to retire
and have a pension.
Life expectancy is higher in MEDCs
compared to LEDCs
Elderly people need services such as
nursing homes, day- care centres and
Many elderly people so voluntary work
and some have paid jobs, which
contributes to taxes.
People who retire earlier contribute to
the economy
Many elderly people travel providing
jobs in the service sector
people to help them at home.
10
Reducing an
ageing
population: EU
Case study
GERMANY AND
FRANCE
Pro natal
policies
•
•
•
France’s Policy
France is worried that there are too many old people who are DEPENDENT and
not enough young people. There are not enough people who are paying taxes. This
will reduce its dependency ration. France like other EU countries is experiencing
very low birth rates. It is currently experiencing 12.7 births per 1,000 people and
is well below replacement rate. Smaller families and later motherhood could soon
result in a noticeable decline in population. In each generation there are fewer
parents so fewer children are born. This is due to many reasons such as later
marriages, the career and education of the woman and the financial undertaking
of having a child.
It has decided to encourage people to have more children (natal policy). This will
make sure that people are working.
• Germany has a low Birth rate of 8.5 birth per 1000 people.
The incentives…
Three years of paid parental leave which can be used by mothers or fathers or a
combination.
• Full time school starts at the age of 3 – fully paid by the government
• Day care for children younger than 3 is paid for by the government
The more children a woman has in France the earlier she will be allowed to retire.
Germany’s policy
In 2006 Germany decided to give incentives to couples to have more
children, including tax breaks and up to $1800 a month for parents to take
time off work.
The government hopes that this "elterngeld," or parents' money, will give
professional women an incentive to stay home from work for a year and
look after their children. If a new mother does so, she will receive 67
percent of her net salary up to a maximum of €1,800, or about $2,370, a
month.
Merkel's drive to boost the birthrate follows years of decline. Indeed, in
2005, Germany recorded its lowest birthrate since 1946, when the
federal statistics office started compiling data. According to the office,
685,795 babies were born last year, down from 705,622 in 2004.
There was a jump soon after the fall of the Berlin Wall, with 905,675
babies born in 1990 in East and West Germany combined. But that was far
from the boom of the early 1960s: More than 1.3 million infants were born
across Germany in 1964.
The new measures mark a major break with the traditional family policy of
the Merkel's Christian Democratic Union and its sister party, the
Christian Social Union, based in Bavaria. For years, the parties sought to
have educated mothers stay at home and depend on the man as the
breadwinner
11
UK’s Ageing
Population
12
13
Case study:
South Devon,
UK
Migration
Migration case
study:
FROM THE EU
TO THE UK
Poland
Key words for migration
Migration = movement of people from one home to another with
the intention of staying at least a year
Push factor = the negative aspects of a place that encourages
people to move away
Pull factor = Attractions and opportunities of a place that
encourages people to move there.
Immigrant = someone entering a new country with the intention of
living there
Emigrant = Some leaving their country of residence to move to
another country
Destination country = the country where the migrant settles
Country of origin = the country from where migration starts
Refugee = Compulsory migration. People have little choice about
moving.
Environmental
12% of the population
have access to clean
water
Drought is a big
problem impacting
agriculture
Agriculture is
declining and this is
having an impact on
peoples income
PUSH FACTORS
Political
The government is
fragile, was run by the
Taliban
There is little medical
help because of the
government not
allowing supplies
through the country
The government is
still having to try and
combat the Taliban
Social
1 in 5 children will die
before their 5th
birthday
Many people are
extremely poor and
live on less than $2 a
day
Many people are
scared of exile.
PULL FACTORS TO THE UK
1) The UK has a low deportation rate, meaning that people
are often allowed to stay.
2) The UK treats refugees generously by giving them food,
education and healthcare.
Benefits to source country
Disadvantages to source
country
Benefits to the host country
14
Migration case
study:
FROM
OUTSIDE THE
EU TO UK
Afghanistan
Disadvantages to the host
country
Afghanistan
Has been at a war since 2002 after September 11th. It is a
dangerous country and people don’t feel safe their and there are
several other reasons for migration. However, people who move
from Afghanistan are called…
REFUGEES = People who are at risk if they stay in their own
country. They become refugees if they settle in another country.
Environmental
12% of the population
have access to clean
water
Drought is a big
problem impacting
agriculture
Agriculture is
declining and this is
having an impact on
peoples income
PUSH FACTORS
Political
The government is
fragile, was run by the
Taliban
There is little medical
help because of the
government not
allowing supplies
through the country
The government is
still having to try and
combat the Taliban
Social
1 in 5 children will die
before their 5th
birthday
Many people are
extremely poor and
live on less than $2 a
day
Many people are
scared of exile.
PULL FACTORS TO THE UK
3) The UK has a low deportation rate, meaning that people
are often allowed to stay.
4) The UK treats refugees generously by giving them food,
education and healthcare.
Revise as much as you can! Remember the more you put
in the more you get out!
Good luck!
Unit 2 – Human Geography
‘Changing urban environments’
Question 2 on the human paper.
Revision checklist –
1
Section
Process of
Urbanisation
Content
Urbanisation = Urbanisation is a process where an increasing
proportion of the population lives in towns and cities (and there is a
reduction living in rural areas).
You need to be able to describe the reasons that there are more
urban areas NORTH of the BRANDT line, and why places such as
Africa don’t have as much urbanisation. You must use examples of
countries when you are explaining.



Developed countries (MEDC) urbanised before developing
countries (LEDC) because they went through industrialisation
in the 18th century
There has been rapid growth in LEDCs since the 1990s,
because of movement from the countryside to the cities
LEDC cities are reported to have the biggest growth of urban
areas, and this will continue.
Revised
2
Reasons for
urbanisation
1) Rural to urban migration
A process where people move from the countryside to towns and
cities.
People in the rural areas were employed in farming and when the
processes became mechanised (using machines instead of people
hands, it led to people having less work and this meant that their
income was reduced. So they decided to move the city to find work.
This has led to a growth in cities in LEDCs.
rate
and
3
Structure and
land use in
MEDC city
2) Natural
Increase
Where birth
is higher than
death rate.
Therefore
getting
increasing BR
decreasing DR
Why is urbanisation slowing in MEDCs and increasing in LEDCs?’
 People in MEDCs have saved for their entire life and they can
afford to move the rural area.
 After the industrial revolution the majority of MEDCs were
urbanised. After a while people didn’t like the environmental
conditions of the cities and therefore moved out.
 In LEDCs, the opposite is happening, where people need to
move to the cities to try and find work and therefore there is
movement of people from the rural to urban areas.
FUNCTION = is the purpose of a particular area e.g. residential ,
recreational, industrial or commercial (business and shopping)
LAND USE = is the type of buildings or other features that are
found in the area e.g. terraced housing, banks, industrial estates,
roads, parks
Land use within an MEDC
Burgess Model
Central Business District (CBD)
The central area of the city. It has high land values, and therefore
typically will build upwards to save on costs of the land.
Infrastructure converges here (often find large railway stations and
bus stations). Large shops are found here and so are large businesses.
It has a high density of buildings in the CBD.
Inner City
This is where old industrial areas were found. The housing is typically
back- to-back terrace housing. These areas have declined in the last
20 years, but in recent years they have been invested into make them
look nice (gentrification). Land prices are less expensive here and you
find high rised flats and areas of derelict land here. Examples of this
are Partick in Glasgow, and Granary Wharfe in Leeds.
Inner Suburbs
Outer suburbs
Rural urban fringe
4
ISSUES IN
MEDC CITIES:
Issue 1:
Housing
Why isn’t there enough housing?
Population increase – increased in UK by 7% since 1971. Along with
30% increase in household sin the UK.
Why we need more housing in the UK?
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Higher divorce rate
Higher population
Immigration
Student population has increased
Commuters – there is a need for a house in the country and a
flat in the city
More affluent people – holiday homes
People have got more disposable income and investing it in
homes to rent out.
•
Life expectancy has increased so people live in own homes for
longer (technology etc – stair lifts)
Single person households account for 70% of the housing demand in
the UK.
Strategies to ease the problems
1) Brownfield Sites – these are areas of land that have been
previously been built on. Often the land has be cleared and all
the rubbish removed. They are often found in the inner city.
2) Greenfield sites – Land that has not been built on before. It is
often found on the edge of the city on the rural urban fringe.
You need to know about the advantages and disadvantages of each
type of site.
Different types of housing been built. Why? You need to know the
reasons for building these different types of housing.
5
ISSUES IN
MEDC CITIES:
Issue 2:
Inner City
Example:
Harehills, Leeds
Inner cities have declined since the industrial heart they grew up
around shut down. These areas are associated with gangs, crime and
dangerous conditions. It has entered in a ‘cycle of decline’
1) Factories close
down, and these
means people haven’t
got an income because
they don’t have a job.
2) Because people
don’t have an income,
means that they stop
it
spending money in local shops.
3) This means that because they are not spending money, these
businesses start to close down, and there are little services in
these areas.
4) The government doesn’t spend money in the area. People also
choose to turn to crime to make money. Areas like this are
seen as deprived because the area is not nice to be in.
5) Because people choose to commit crimes, they often don’t go
to school and get the qualifications that they need to get
another job, and therefore contribute to unemployment in the
area. This process is on-going and is repeated.
Three examples of how the inner city has been improved:
1) Urban development cooperation, London
2) City Challenge, Hulme, Manchester
3) Sustainable communities, New Islington
6
ISSUES IN
Segregation = when people of a particular ethnic group choose to live
MEDC CITIES:
Issue 3:
Cultural Mix
with others from the same ethnic group and separate from other
groups.
Why people live together?
Case Study:
Leeds
7
ISSUES IN
MEDC CITIES:
Issue 4:
Traffic
Case
Study:
Leeds – How reduce segregation in citiesIn Leeds they have attempted to integrate different ethnic groups.
1. Improving children's achievement by improving education in
deprived inner city areas.
2. Literacy projects in areas where English is not the first
language.
3. Basic training and skills for people
4. Community projects – football teams
Problems caused by traffic in urban areas
1. Air pollution created by vehicles this will lead to more
pollutants in the air and will contribute to global warming
2. Slow down the delivery of goods. This will have an effect on
the economy
3. The pollutants in the car will cause the buildings to become
discoloured leading to them looking less athletically pleasing.
4. There are impacts on the health of people who live in the city,
it may cause respiratory conditions.
Solutions to the problems
1. Park and Ride Schemes e.g. York - Drivers leave their cars in
big car parks on the outskirts of the city. Regular buses then
take them to the city centre. This reduces the amount of cars
going into the city and therefore congestion and improves air
quality.
2. Trams e.g. Sheffield - Sheffield introduced the trams in the
city in the 1990s as a way to reduce air pollution created by
cars, and it also provided a quick and cheap way of getting
round the city. The Sheffield tram runs by over head
electricity lines and run on roads around the city.
3. Bus lanes – e.g. Leeds - These are lanes that only buses can
use (and sometimes taxis) are allowed to use. There are
several benefits. The buses are not held up by other traffic,
which makes them quick and reliable. Also, public transport is
less polluting as it reduces the amount of cars on the road.
London’s congestion charge:
•
•
•
•
London suffers the worst traffic congestion in the UK.
Drivers in central London spend 50% of their time in queues.
Every weekday morning, the equivalent of 25 busy motorway
lanes of traffic tries to enter central London.
London loses between £2–4 million every week in terms of lost
time caused by congestion
You need to know the advantages and disadvantages of this scheme
along with how it works.
8
ISSUES IN
MEDC CITIES:
Issue 5:
CBD
Characteristics of the CBD
- High land values forced to build upwards.
- Lots of large department stores are found in the CBD.
- Infrastructure converges in the CBD – large railway stations
and bus stations are found here.
- Areas in the CBD often have large old buildings that were
there when the city developed.
The CBD is split into two areas, the core and the frame:-
Key words you need to know – the zone of decline and the zone of
improvements
Social, economic and environmental problems with CBD
SOCIAL
ECONOMIC
ENVIRONMENTAL
Litter problems – not
Closure of shops due to Crime on the increase
enough bins
out of town shopping
centres
Congestion on the roads Safety – particularly of
Office spaces are
the elderly people
vacated as it is too
expensive.
Noise in on the increase Fewer shoppers as more Air pollution.
choice in shopping
centres
Case Study of Birmingham’s regeneration of the CBD
Why it declined?
The Merry Hill Shopping Centre opened in 1989 this drew people out
of the city to the Shopping Centre and as a result the city centre
declined as businesses went bankrupt and the area declined.
Birmingham’s Regeneration schemes
1. THE BULL RING
The Bull Ring is one of the oldest parts of Birmingham and has
been a market site for over 800 years.
The 1964 shopping centre was described by The Birmingham Post
in 2003 as ‘a symbol of 60s urban decay’. From the 1980s, plans
were made to rebuild the Bull Ring and in 2000 it was finally
demolished. The largest retail regeneration project in Europe,
costing £500 million, was put into action. The Bull Ring reopened in
June 2003
- 140 shops, cafes and restaurants – attracting people back to
the CBD
- 3100 car parking spaces
- Created 8000 new jobs – this meant that it would reduce
unemployment in the CBD
2. THE MAILBOX
- The Mail Box on Wharfside Street used to be Birmingham’s
Royal Mail Sorting Office.
- Its shell has been retained and the inside redeveloped into a
multi-use mall.
- 40 retail outlets, including Harvey Nichols and Emporio Armani
- Two hotels – Malmaison and Days Hotel
- Office space – it is the new HQ for BBC Birmingham.
- 200 ‘executive’ apartments.
3. NEW STREET DEVELOPMENT
More bins have been
provided reducing
the rubbish in the
streets
Lighting has been
improved to try
and reduce
crime.
Trees make the
area look better
and attract people
back to the CBD
Area has become
pedestrianized making
the area feel nicer.
9
LEDC Cities
What are they
like?
10 LEDC Cities
Issues in
shanty towns
Examples:
Dhvari,
Mumbai, India
Rocinha, Rio
de Janeiro,
Brazil.
Birmingham has used brownfield sites. So using land that has been
previously been built on.
It is going to attract people back to the city for shopping and retail
opportunities.
Key words: - Squatter Settlement/ Informal sector/ squatter
High quality residential
radiates out from the centre
along with industrial land
that typically follows routes
like roads and rail. Squatter
settlements are found on the
outskirts because it is first
place people arrive to and
the land is typically cheaper.
LEDC City model
LEDCs have issues in shanty towns
Social
Squatter settlements are
often overcrowded
(meaning too many
people live there)
In many favelas in Brazil,
drugs and crime a massive
problem because it easy to
make money from.
Economic
Many people are
employed in the informal
sector, meaning that they
do their job unofficially
and often illegally.
Lack of infrastructure such
as roads, schools and
hospitals.
Toilet facilities are poor
and this can spread
disease easily.
Environmental
Houses are made various
materials such as wood
and corrugated iron.
There is often no
sanitation (no running
water, flashing toilets or
drains)
There are lots of diseases
and a problem with
pollution. There is also a
lack of clean water.
Squatter settlements are
often built on the side a
hill and prone to
landslides.
You need to be able to DESCRIBE and EXPLAIN these problems in
shanty towns
11
LEDC Cities
Making shanty
towns better
Case studyRocinha, Rio
de Janeiro,
Brazil.
12 Environmental
problems
Case studyWaste in
Kenya
Site and
service
schemes
Self-help
schemes
These give people the chance to rent or buy a piece of land. The
land is connected to the city by transport links and has access
to essential services (eg water). People build their own homes
using money from a low-interest loan.
These give people the tools and training to improve their homes.
Low-interest loans may be used to help people fund these
changes. People may be given legal ownership of the land.
Causes of environmental problems in LEDC’s
A process in which an increased proportion of the population are
employed in the manufacturing sector of the economy.
This process happened in the 18th century in the UK, but is only
started happening in LEDCs recently and can lead to the miss use of
the environment.
Rubbish is often transported to the peripheries of our cities.
Kibarani is a dump site on the outskirts of Mombasa in Kenya.
Several thousand people live here in complete poverty, picking
through the mountains of waste, looking for plastic or metal
they can sell on for recycling, trying to make a living. There's no
clean water, sanitation, schools or permanent houses. Most
Kibarani residents are migrants from the surrounding rural areas
who have not been able to find a job in the city.
Solutions
13 Sustainable
cities Curitiba Brazil
Recycling, Brownfield/ Recycling,-but for solutions always use
Curitiba as your solution or else some of the solutions discussed
earlier in this booklet.
• Aim of Curitiba- To guarantee a good quality of life for
Curitiba's citizens over the long term, ensuring social inclusion,
accessibility, public amenities, and environmental sustainability
for the city and metropolitan area
Facts
• Population of 1.6 million
• Population has doubled in last 30 years
• 10% of population live in slums
• 70% of waste is recycled
• Poor people exchange their waste for food or bus tickets
• Plenty of parks and open spaces
• 55 m2 of green space per person- twice UN
• 200 km of bike paths
• Excellent bus system
• Teenagers hired to clean parks
Solutions used
Transport
3 carriage bendy buses-2 million people a day use this form of
public transport, bus only avenues, bus fares very cheap and a
single price, old buses used for mobile schools or office, ssafe,
pleasant bus shelters
Environment
1.5 million trees line Curitiba’s streets all planted by volunteers
Park created Artificially created in a former quarry
1/5th of Curibita is parkland
1200 trees saved daily by the amount of paper recycling
City centre
Clean, pedestrianised city centre, Well lit , Pleasant
surroundings, Flowers, Places to sit
Waste
Residents from the shanty towns exchange their rubbish for
food and bus tokens-known as the green exchange
Unit 2 – Human Geography
‘Tourism’
Question 6 on the human paper
Revision checklist –
1
Section
Growth of
tourism
Content
Tourism = Involves an activity that requires travel from home and
staying away for at least one night. This can involve business trips,
visiting friends and relatives.
There are several reasons for the explosion in global tourism:
- People are getting paid more an may have a greater disposable
income
- Increase and development in air travel – in particular the growth
of low cost airlines such as Jet2 and EasyJet.
- The internet has made tourism much easier – more easy and
enjoyable.
- More places for people to go on holiday too.
Factors that affect tourism:
- Terrorism – after 9/11, passenger numbers dropped because of
fear of another terrorist attack occurring. There were concerns
over safety
- Exchange rate – if the £ is stronger against a currency it means
that tourists will get for their money, and if it is the opposite it
will cause less tourists to go, as they get less for their money.
- Oil Prices – oil prices fluctuate (go up and down), and this effects
the price of airline tickets, as airlines have to pay more for
aviation fuel and therefore tourists have to pay more for their
tickets.
Economic effects of tourism
Revised
-
Tourism has numerous economic effects that can be seen in the
tree above. For example, an increase in overseas visitors, with
high incomes and a desire to travel, will increase the income that
country makes (it Gross Domestic product or GDP), and this will
lead to governments to invest more money in infrastructure and
public services and higher quality life for it’s people.
Infrastructure = the services and facilities that a country has. This may
be it roads, railways, schools or hospitals. As tourism develops the
infrastructure often gets better.
2
Management
of Tourism
Butler Model (Life Cycle and resort Model)
EXPLORATION - a few hardy and adventurous people looking for
something different in a holiday find a place that is special in terms
of its culture, natural beauty, history or landscape. There may be
no tourist services available and local people will not be involved
in tourist money making activities.
2) INVOLVEMENT - local people start to notice that there are
increasing numbers of people coming to their local area. They start
businesses to provide accommodation, food, guides, and transport.
3) DEVELOPMENT - Big companies start to see the emerging
potential of the area as a tourist resort and therefore start to
invest money in the region. They build large hotel complexes and sell
package holidays (a package might include travel, accommodation,
food and excursions). This makes the numbers of tourists swell
dramatically and massively expands the number of job opportunities
for people in the local region, in both tourist related jobs and in
construction and services.
4) CONSOLIDATION - The local economy is probably dominated by
tourism at this stage, and many local people will make their money
from this type of industry. However, this can remove people from
other industries such as farming and fishing and these industries can
suffer as a result. There will be continued building and expansion of
the resort BUT some of the older buildings will start to become
unattractive and a lower quality client base might result.
5) STAGNATION - competition from other resorts, rowdiness and a
loss of the original features (e.g. if it had a great beach but that is
now crowded and full of rubbish) can cause the resort to stop
growing. The number of people going levels off then starts to
decline, threatening local businesses and services.
6) DECLINE OR REJUVENATION? From the stagnation point
onwards there are 2 basic possibilities: Decline in various forms or
rejuvenation (regrowth of the resort) Decline can be slow or rapid,
and regular visitors are replaced by people seeking a cheap break or
day trippers. Rejuvenation involves a cash injection from either a
private company or the government, to create a new attraction within
the original resort to boost its popularity - such as the Pleasure
Beach at Blackpool.
Case Study of a coastal resort – Blackpool
Reasons by Blackpool became popular:
 Coastal location
 Long sandy beaches
 In Victorian times it was easily accessible by train-this was how
many of the wealthy elite travelled at this time.
 Factory workers began to use Blackpool as an escape from the
smog of the industrial revolution factories
Reasons for decline
 Package holidays(due to warmer climate and competitively priced)=
downward spiral of decline
 Beach erosion
 Unreliable summer weather
 Overcrowding and traffic jams at busy times
 Pollution of the beach and water – no Blue Flag
 Hen and stag parties scare families away
Management strategies
 Demolishing old building
 Landscaping old car parks
 Beaches cleaned up, gaining blue flag status for three beaches
 The Blackpool illuminations are being transformed by 10 million


investment
Attractions for both summer and winter introduced e.g. the big
one-fastest rollercoaster in the world
More covered walkways
Butler Model and Blackpool
3
Mass Tourism
Mass Tourism: This is a form of tourism that involves tens of
thousands of people going to the same resort often at the same time
of year. It is the most popular form of tourism as it is often the
cheapest way to holiday, and is often sold as a PACKAGE DEAL. A
package deal is one in which all of the tourists needs are catered for
by one company (such as Thomas Cook), these needs include
travel/flights, activities, accommodation and sometimes food.
Case Study of Mass Tourism: Thailand
Location: Thailand is located in Asia. Its capital is
Bangkok, and is surrounded by the Andaman Sea.
Popular places include Koh Tao, Koh Phangan and
Koh Samui, which are located in the Gulf of
Thailand.
Attractions of Thailand:
Natural Attractions: Beautiful beaches in the
Andaman Sea. Turquoise water for swimming and
scuba diving. Stunning waterfalls and rainforests.
Human Attractions: Cultural attractions such as tuk- tuk’s and floating
market. Buddism is the main religion in the country that brings unique
experiences for tourists.
Climate:
- Thailand has a distinctive tropical monsoon climate. It has
distinctive wet and dry seasons.
- This attracts people to the country as it is hot all year round.
Key facts:
- 4 million tourists visit Thailand each year
- Since 1950 Thailand’s tourists industry has grown rapidly.
- In 2000, because of the film The Beach – 9 million tourists went
to Thailand
- About 20% of Thailand’s GDP comes from tourism
- 49% of all jobs are in tourist related industries
Impacts
Positive Impacts:
1) Jobs are generated by tourism in many areas - in the initial
construction of the resorts, in travel, in food provision and in
other service related industries.
2) Local people benefit directly from employment
3) Roads, rail, facilities, electricity services etc. all need
improving to accommodate the tourists - local people also
benefit from these INFRASTRUCTURE developments.
4) Transport facilities are developed
5) The local tax base increases so the local government/council
can invest in schools, healthcare and social services.
6) Tourists introduce new values and cultures and learn about
new cultures- this causes cultural UNDERSTANDING
Negative Impacts
1)TNCs (Trans National Corporations) from rich countries are often
involved - this can result in a lot of profits leaving the country.
2 Jobs can be seasonal - especially in beach and skiing based
resorts. People can therefore find themselves out of work in the
close season.
3) Tourists consume huge amounts of resources including food and
water - this type of tourism is particularly UNSUSTAINABLE in this
manner.
4) Tourists introduce new values and cultures - this causes cultural
pollution.
5) Land is lost from farming to tourist development.
Management Strategies
• Water treatment plant
• Daily rubbish collectors
• Thai Government supports protecting the environment. They know
that if it is ugly tourists won’t go.
• Ecotourism is developing – trekkers are experiencing life in
•
4
Extreme
Environment –
Case Study –
Antarctica
traditional villages without hot water or electricity.
Educating tourists when they come.
Definition of extreme environments: Locations with particularly
difficult environments where few people live, Development of tourism has
only recently occurred due to a niche market demand for somewhere
different with physical challenges. E.g. Macchu Picchu, Peru, Antarctic
peninsula, Dubai
Target Markets
- Around 30 years old, unmarried and without children. High
powered jobs and a good income
- Families. Adults are in their 40s and they have children around 510 years
- Active retired people (60-70yrs) who are still active and who have
money saved up for retirement
- Teenagers on their gap year before work or University.
Case Study – Antarctica
- Antarctica’s first tourists arrived in 1958.
- In those days, visitor numbers
very small.
- But today, thanks to an increase
cruise ships, about 28,000
tourists visit the continent
year - more than three times
number that visited 15 years
-
-
-
-
were
in
every
the
ago.
These temperatures make it a truly EXTREME environment, very
dangerous for humans to visit and live. In addition, for many
months during the year there is 24 hours of darkness or 24 hours
of light as the Earth orbits the sun. You can also witness
the Aurora Australis or southern lights here, and a huge range of
wildlife from emperor penguins, seals to Whales.
The environment is also incredibly sensitive. It can take many
hundreds of years for rubbish to decompose because of the
extremely low temperatures, and the food chain is also delicate
because most of the marine life rely upon Krill as their primary
source of food.
Antarctica is becoming an increasingly popular destination for
tourists. Indeed, tourist numbers have gone from 9,000 in 199293 to 46,000 in 2007-8 with over 100 companies being involved
Visitors are mainly from rich nations (39% American, 15% British)
and tend to fly to New Zealand or Chile or Argentina and set sail
from there.
Few visitors go on the ice as it is too hazardous, however, there
are some very accessible sites and boats tend to stop there
preferentially. These are Honey pot sites and the animals get
disturbed from their usual feeding and breeding routines. In
addition, many ships have run aground and had accidents and oil
spills are an increasing hazard. Waste from tourist boats is also a
problem, and by law ships are required to discharge waste well
away from the edges of Antarctica
How to protect Antarctica?
- The IATTO (International Association of Antarctic Tour
Operators)
- In addition, Tourism has to follow the rules of the Antarctic
treaty, signed in 1961, where many countries promised
to demilitarize Antarctica, to establish it as a zone free of
nuclear tests and the disposal of radioactive waste, and to ensure
that it is used for peaceful purposes only;
- to promote international scientific cooperation in Antarctica;
- To set aside disputes over territorial sovereignty.
Visitors cannot visit SSSIs or Sites of Special Scientific Interest which
often contain vulnerable wildlife, again reducing the impact of
tourism. There are hundreds of these areas around the Antarctic
continent, but they are small in scale and protect the most vulnerable
areas e.g. penguin breeding grounds.
ermits must also be obtained to go, and these permits include sections
on waste management, risk management and how the applicant will
minimise their Environmental Impact whilst in Antarctica.
The Antarctic Treaty
The Antarctic Act of 1994 is a UK act which supports the Antarctic
Treaty of 1961 and makes environmental damage in Antarctica by any
British citizen punishable by law.
The US has its own permit system, formed in the Antarctic Conservation
Act of 1978, protects native mammals, birds, and plants and their
ecosystems. The law applies to all U.S. citizens and makes it unlawful to;







5
Sustainable
tourism
take native mammals or birds
engage in harmful interference
enter specially designated areas
introduce species to Antarctica
introduce substances designated as pollutants
discharge designated pollutants
import certain Antarctic items into the USA
Violation of this can result in a 1 year jail sentence or $11,000 fine
Key words:
Ecotourism = Tourism that focuses on protecting the environment and
the local way of life. Also known as green tourism
Stewardship = The personal responsibility for looking after things, in
this case the environment. No one should damage the present or future
environment
Sustainable development = Meeting the needs of today without
compromising the needs of future generations
Conservation = The careful and planned use of resources in order to
manage and maintain the natural environment for future generations
Feature of eco-tourism
- Ecotourism caters for a small niche in the market of people who
are environmentally aware and it is the fastest expanding sector of
the tourism industry
- Presently these holidays cost more so they only attract those who
have money. Less well-off people might be aware of sustainable
tourism but cannot afford it.
- Eco-tourists experience the natural environment directly,
undertaking activities like bird watching and trekking and their
holiday has as little impact on the environment as is possible.
- Energy used is sustainable/renewable and as little waste as
possible generated
- Accommodation is small scale and food is grown locally. Local
people are the guides
Case Study of Eco-tourism – Kapawi Lodge, Ecuador
Location
- Found at near the Ecuador and Peru
border, in the Southern Ecaudorian
Amazon Basin on the Pastaza River, a
major river that flows into the
Amazon.
- The closest town in 10 days walk away.
Travel to the lodge
- One of the attractive things about the
lodge is it’s remoteness.
- You must travel to Shell and then get on a smaller plane, to get
closer to the lodge. Then it is a 30 minute canoe ride to the
Kapawi Lodge.
Accommodation
- 44 guests can be accommodated in traditional Achuar style
cabins. All cabins stand on stilts above a lagoon of plant and
animal life.
- There are 19 double and triple cabins with private bathrooms.
The water is heated by solar heated portable shower bags.
- Water is totally purified from rain water.
Activities
- Activities include bird watching, visiting local communities, hiking
and camping.
- Most activities include a visit to an Achuar community to
experience how the Achuar people live in the rainforest.
- You can experience the bird and animal life, and tourists might
experience seeing the rare pink dolphins.
Environmental policies
-
-
-
-
The lodge is situated on a lagoon, and the huts are built on stilts
in order to minimise impact upon the surrounding vegetation.
Sewage goes through three- stage treatment process, ultimately,
through a dry swamp, and is filtered and is returned into the
environment.
Rubbish is separated into three types a) Plastic, glass and metal,
which is packed and flown to the city b) Paper which is burnt c)
Biodegerable rubbish is buried in the forest for decomposition to
occur.
Canoes are equipped with engines that reduce the noise and
pollution massively.
The entire lodge is powered by solar power, which is designed to
provide 80% of the lodge’s energy needs, there is also a back-up
generators
Solar heated shower bags provides 5 gallons of hot water per
room daily, depending on the weather conditions.
How ecotourism in Ecuador benefits the…
a) Environment
- The Lodge enforces environmental policies to ensure they are
protecting the environment such as the way they dispose waste,
obtain water and use local food for feeding tourists. All these
things ensure that the lodge has minimal impact on the
environment.
b) The Local economy
- Local people are employed in the lodge, and this will develop the
local economy as they will have a greater income, and will allow
development of the area. Furthermore, because most activities
visit the Achuar community tourist will buy souvenir goods from
them and this will put money into the local area.
c) The Local people
- The local people get jobs in the lodge as workers such as cleaners,
cooks or can act as guides. By providing employment for the local
people it is sustainable to ensure that there is a reliable income
stream to villages surrounding the lodge.