WOODBURN SCHOOL DISTRICT
Music Instructional
Framework:
A Guide to Comprehensive Musicianship through
Performance
10/31/2013
Drafted by a Woodburn School District Music Teachers in October of 2013.
Title Page
Introduction
An historical overview of the Woodburn School District’s (WSD) journey into and
through comprehensive music programming.
Philosophy
A brief statement that identifies the philosophical underpinnings and research of
music education in Woodburn.
Methodology
An explanation of the systems and processes that support our philosophy.
Methods
An overview of the and components of comprehensive musicianship through
performance.
Assessment
Organization
An overview of possible schedules within a classroom.
Common Agreements
Woodburn School District music norms on a variety of topics in Q&A format.
References
An annotated list of resources that support various components of the WSD
instructional framework.
Glossary
A short dictionary of terminology used throughout the document.
Appendix Index
A compilation of articles and executive summaries that serve to explain or
expand upon various aspects of the music framework.
1
Introduction
Historically, Woodburn School District has supported
and valued the contribution music education makes to
the depth and richness of students’ lives.
“The Academic Benefits of Music Education
Researchers have studied the benefits of music
education for decades, consistently finding strong
correlations between music and academic
achievement. For example,
positive results have been noted in standardized tests.
Regardless of socioeconomic background, according
to a 10-year study that tracked more than 25,000
middle and high school students, music-making
students get higher marks on standardized tests than
those who have little or no music involvement. The College Entrance Examination
Board found that students in music programs scored 63 points higher on the verbal and
44 points higher on the math sections of the SATs than students with no music
participation. Additionally, students performed better on other standardized tests such
as reading proficiency exams.
Similarly, a study examining the relationship between participation in high or low-quality
school music programs and standardized test scores showed that students in highquality programs scored higher on both English and mathematics standardized tests
than their counterparts who did not have high-quality instruction (Johnson, 2006). The
researchers also found that students in exceptional music programs as well as lowquality instrumental programs still performed better in English and mathematics than
those students receiving no music classes…
Mathematics Skills
Research has clearly found that music instruction helps develop the capacity for spatialtemporal reasoning, which is integral to the acquisition of important mathematics skills.
One explanation for this observation is that musical training in rhythm emphasizes
proportion, patterns, fractions and ratios expressed as mathematical relations.
U.S. Department of Education data showed that students involved in band or orchestra
during their middle and high school years demonstrated significantly higher levels of
math proficiency by grade 12. The results were even more pronounced for low-income
families. Those who took instrumental music were more than twice as likely to perform
at the highest levels in math as their peers who were not involved in music (Catterall,
2
2002). Similar findings were found by Helmrich (2010) who concluded that formal
instrumental instruction was positively correlated with algebra achievement. He also
analyzed the data for differences between white and black students, finding that
students of both races performed better than those who received no music instruction.
Interestingly, the degree to which music instruction affects the achievement of black
students is greater than that of white students.
A meta-analysis of 15 studies involving 701 children ages 3 to 12 years (Hetland, 2000)
suggested that children provided with music instruction score higher than controls on
spatial-temporal tasks. Children who begin music instruction very early in life are likely
to show the greatest benefits. And longitudinal research suggested that at least two
years of music instruction are required for sustained enhancement of spatial abilities
(Rauscher, 2002)…
Reading and Language Skills
…In 2000, Ron Butzlaff conducted a year-long study on 162 sixth graders to determine
whether instrumental music instruction helps children acquire reading skills. At the end
of the year, all the students were given the Stanford Achievement Test, which explores
reading and verbal skills, and Butzlaff found that students with two or three years of
instrumental musical experience performed significantly higher on the exam than the
students with no instrumental music instruction. Similarly, in 2000, using a sample size
of more than 500,000 high school students, Butzlaff found a strong and reliable
association between music instruction and reading test scores.” (Judson, 2012)
In October of 2013, WSD pulled together music teachers from across the district to
develop an instructional framework that would set a vision of excellence in music
education and would guide music education in the district for years to come.
Participants:
Administrators
Teachers
Laurie Cooper
Sarah Vraneza
Jason Rodgers
Brian Robertson
Brian Gingerich
Facilitator
Rolonda Meye
Debra Hopkins
Gary Burgin Sr.
Sig Paulson
Lena Baucum
3
Philosophy
Music is a creative process with its own distinct symbol system, which requires students
to access multiple modes of perception to struggle with problems and discover novel
solutions; the student learning environment is structured to foster this process.
Students learn in a student-centered environment where teachers differentiate
teaching according to student needs (Tomlinson, 2000). Teachers employ a wide
variety of instructional approaches, which include the gradual release of
responsibility (Pearson & Gallagher, 1983) wherein teaching of new strategies is done
in a scaffolded (Gibbons, 2005) format targeting the needs of the learner, and the
constructivist model (Johnson, 2004). Formal and informal authentic assessments
(Stiggins, 2002) track student achievement toward demonstration of a competency at
each level. (Oregon Music Education Standards, 2010, pg.10)
·
4
Methodology
Teachers instruct students through the balanced approach of Comprehensive
Musicianship through Performance, (Norgren, 1980) which synthesizes instruction in
music history, authentic repertoire, formal analysis, composition/improvisation,
rehearsal, and performance.
Most Comprehensive Musicianship (CM) programs include the following specific traits:
1.
All style periods are treated as being equally important. This progressive
development has resulted in the rightful inclusion of both twentieth-century and pretonal music in the theory curriculum along with jazz, ethnic, and non-Western music.
2.
Authentic compositions in a variety of textures and mediums, as opposed to
artificial exercises, form the core study. Thus, the learning of music literature (although
not necessarily in a chronological sequence) assumes a central role as a goal of its own
along with synthesizing basic theoretical principles.
Both written and aural musical analysis feature balanced attention to pitch,
rhythm, timbre, texture, form, expression, and dynamics.
3.
4.
Composition and improvisation projects, are stressed. Real composition work,
both style imitation and purely original creation, are useful to make a closer connection
to real music and also add interest.
5.
Reading, rehearsing and performing of student or other compositions in class is a
part of Comprehensive Musicianship. Just as swimming cannot be learned from a
book, real music learning rarely takes place without this live contact; composing,
analyzing, and then hearing and playing actual pieces is the musician’s equivalent of
jumping in the water and actually getting wet.
6.
Literacy in the music classroom is reflected in the students’ ability to interact with
live and written music and effectively communicate about that interaction both orally and
in written form.
7.
The most important aspect in the Comprehensive Musicianship philosophy is that
all of these activities and components be related to one another and lead to a unified
and complete understanding. To rectify the compartmentalization of music study and to
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substitute holistic learning is the ultimate goal. All facts are originally learned one at a
time, but genuine musical insight is usually only achieved when facts and ideas are
brought together and seen in true relationship by totaling more than the sum of their
parts.
Components of Comprehensive Musicianship from “Teaching Approaches in Music Theory” by Michael Rodgers,
2004. Modified by Music Teachers of WSD to provide additional clarity, October, 2013.
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Methods
Woodburn School District music students are offered a classical music education. A
classical music education centers on Music Theory: the study of music, specifically
relating to rhythm, melody and form. A strong foundation in music theory helps students
hear and create music in more meaningful and fulfilling ways. This Classical Music
education is attained in different ways, dependent upon the developmental level of the
students and instrumental choices.
General Music
Music educators in WSD utilize a variety of methods to engage students in learning. At
the elementary level, the methods of Orff, Kodaly, Dalcroze, Weikart, as well as
traditional classical methods, are incorporated in lessons . Students create, perform,
and respond to music in a variety of ways through child-centered, engaging activities.
The Orff Method is a way of teaching children about music that engages their mind and
body through a mixture of body percussion, singing, movement, and the use of
percussion instruments (i.e. xylophones, metallophones, glockenspiels) and recorders.
Lessons are presented in such a way that improvisation, composition and a child's
natural sense of play are encouraged and children are helped to learn at their own level
of understanding. (about.com)
The Kodaly Method is a way of developing musical skills and teaching musical concepts
beginning in very young children. This method uses folk songs, Curwen hand signs,
pictures, movable-do, rhythm symbols and syllables, and singing is viewed as the
foundation of musical learning. The teacher sequentially follows a child’s natural
learning development, incorporating games, movement, playing instruments, and
reading and writing music with singing.
The Dalcroze Method an approach music educators use to internalize rhythm, foster
music appreciation, aid in ear-training, and facilitate improvisation while improving
musical abilities. In this method, the body is the main instrument. Students listen to the
rhythm of a musical piece and express what they hear through movement. Simply put,
this approach connects music, movement, mind, and body.
Weikart Method is used to teach and engage learners in all types of movement-based
activities. The method has three major components: Separate - involves initiating
experiences or presenting information by using only one mode of presentation at a time.
Simplify - involves beginning with what is easy or manageable to learn. Facilitate concerns all the ways that teachers engage students through action, thought and
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language as they support them in developing awareness and skills constructing their
own knowledge.
Choral/Vocal
While it is the goal at all levels to attain comprehensive musicianship, the Kodaly and
the Orff methods heavily influence music education in the elementary grades.
Beginning at the middle school level, a gradual shift to a more classical music training
takes place. However, even at the highest levels echos of Kodaly and Orff remain.
Smaller ensembles may focus more heavily on different areas of comprehensive
Musicianship than others.
Instrumental Ensembles
Band classes in Woodburn draw from a variety of methods to instruct students and
ensure comprehensive Musicianship. Student musicians are classically trained. From
the beginning students are taught to read, write, improvise and perform music. Smaller
ensembles may focus more heavily on different areas of comprehensive Musicianship
than others.
Orchestra
Woodburn school district does not currently offer an orchestral program, however
if it were to offer a program
In the process of attaining comprehensive musicianship, orchestral classes in
Woodburn School District use the Suzuki method to teach string performance at
the very beginning stages with a gradual shift to the traditional classical training
of musicians.
Suzuki believed that all people are capable of learning from their environment.
He believed that music education should begin at a very young age. In the
beginning, learning by ear is emphasized over reading musical notation. There is
emphasis on the teacher being a performer and a role model for the student. As
a result, in a classroom using the Suzuki system, there will be much teacherstudent “call and response.” Suzuki also believed that students learning
environment is enhanced through the use of audio musical recordings. So, in the
Suzuki classroom, students playing along with recordings will be occurring. The
introduction of music theory and music reading is left entirely up to the judgement
of the teacher.
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Stages of Artistic Development:
Music development occurs in stages. These stages are not necessarily linear in nature. A
student may be at a multiple stages, both different and similar, in different areas of musicianship
at any given time. For example, a student learning to play the trumpet may be at the imitation
stage of folk music, at the exploration stage mute usage, yet functioning at the
visualization/audiation phase of composition. These stages, like the gradual release of
responsibility, help a teacher to determine the level of scaffolding that may be appropriate for a
given student on a given musical task.
●
Using imitation, the teacher demonstrates a musical task and the students either
perform the task simultaneously, or immediately after the teacher so that the student
may understand the task at a deeper level, and then build on it.
●
During the exploration stage, the students use trial and error to come to a
predetermined conclusion, or to create a new song or dance using prior knowledge and
the guidelines set by the teacher.
●
Through improvisation, students begin to synthesize prior knowledge in order to
manipulate, create, and apply learned material. wherein the learning is internalized and
is owned by the learner.
●
Visualization/Audiation is the stage wherein students recognize the connection
between the written representation of music and the resulting sound. For example, the
process of looking at notation for the first time and accurately predicting the pitches and
rhythms, as well as imagining a series of pitches and rhythms, and then being able to
transfer those pitches into musical notation.
Music educators utilize the gradual release of responsibility as a means of helping students to
learn music content. Examples of this type of music content might include, but are not limited
to, the instrumental families, music history, tone production, musical etiquette, etc.
Music teachers in Woodburn School District use a variety of grouping strategies to arrive at the
goal of comprehensive musicianship. During any given lesson a teacher may choose to employ
any or all of the following groupings to facilitate a high level of learning.
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Structures
Large ensembles create broad learning opportunities for students in a highly scaffolded format
to combine many voices or instruments. Large ensembles allow students to experience a
variety of authentic literature that allows musicians to perform polyphonic music that is
unavailable to smaller ensembles. Voice/Instrument, skill level, interest level, and/or learning
goals are all taken into consideration when forming the ensemble to facilitate the expectation
that students remain in their zone of proximal development and continue to develop as
musicians.
Small Ensembles are used to help build musicianship by building skill, camaraderie between
musicians, and to develop confidence as students perform for an audience. Small ensembles
also allow for students to work in collaboration with peers of similar interest areas or similar
tastes in music while increasing independence and confidence. This can be a critical step in
moving students towards solo performance.
Sectional rehearsal involves small groups of students who perform similar or same parts from
within a large ensemble working together to improve their skills in isolation. Additional benefits
include building community, deepening musical understanding, and strengthening leadership
skills.
Independent work or Solos allows students to demonstrate and showcase their musical skills
in an individualized fashion with minimal scaffolding. In addition, solo performance develops a
student’s confidence and enables them to feel more comfortable about performing in front of
audiences. Solo performance also requires students to employ discipline, self-analysis and
allows for specific, personalized feedback from teachers, audiences and peers which leads to
increased musical proficiency.
Music Educators also draw upon a variety of grouping strategies which are borrowed
from general education that utilize the gradual release of responsibility. For example, whole
group mini-lessons, dyadic mutual teaching, random groupings (birthday month, numbering off,
etc.) for exploration, teacher-selected small groups (partners, triads, etc.), and independent
work.
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Instructional Techniques
The instructional techniques used in the Woodburn School District Music Department are
employed after considering: 1) the cognitive development of the student, 2) the student’s
musical schema, and 3) the technical complexity of the learning target being considered.
Teachers are able to adjust up or down the scaffolding of any instructional technique within a
given learning stage with the addition of aural, visual and kinesthetic cuing systems. For
example, a teacher may demonstrate a portion of a given piece by singing the piece aloud for
students. The teacher may scaffold the musical task through the use of visuals (i.e. showing
the notation). A teacher may further scaffold the musical task by using a kinesthetic cuing
system (i.e. the Curwen-Glover hand signs) (Curwen, 1876). As such, both visual and
kinesthetic cuing systems are essential for meeting the needs of individual learners and keeping
new learning within a students zone of proximal development.
IMITATION
Demonstration
The teacher models the a given musical task or concept. This may
include, but is not limited to: tone production, posture, rhythm,
phrasing, dynamics, etc.
Listening
The students listen to an audio recording or a live performance of
other musicians performing a musical selection they are learning to
increase understanding. This may include, but is not limited to:
Music CDs, Youtube videos, local concerts, visiting artists.
EXPLORATION
Simultaneous
The teacher performs along side of the student to assist learning.
This involves the teacher playing or singing along with the student
(in close proximity) to give the student extra support while learning.
Echo
The student repeats exactly what the teacher sings or plays. The
teacher plays or sings a rhythm or a melody, and the student sings
or plays it back in exact imitation.
Visual Cueing
The teacher uses physical gestures to guide student participation
in a musical task. When a conductor shows students the exact
moment to begin playing, how fast or slow the tempo will be, how
loudly or softly to begin playing, and the style of a piece, with one
smooth gesture, he or she is using visual cueing. A teacher may
also point to a student without speaking to communicate an
entrance. Other examples include, but are not limited to, solfege
hand signs, lip-speaking, finger-spelling, sign language, body
postures, and facial expressions.
Hand-over-Hand
Teacher places hand over students’ hands and goes through the
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motions of a task so that the student may experience first-hand
how it physically feels to perform that task. This can be helpful for
students learning to play instruments, performing solfege hand
signs, writing notation,and any other task involving movement of
the hands. Movement creates shape which is visual in nature, and
therefore stimulates the visual cortex of the brain. Studies have
shown that 85% or higher of today’s population employ visual
learning systems. Therefore, by capitalizing on the power of
kinesthetic memory, the teacher increases the opportunity for the
newly acquired information to make it to semantic, meaningful
memory, which leads to deeper understanding.
Call and Response
The student responds musically to teacher musical prompt. The
teacher plays or sings a rhythm or a melody, and the student sings
or plays a response that is different than the teacher’s.
Guided
practice/performance
with feedback
The conductor/teacher gives on the spot effective feedback
(formative assessment) of the preparatory or performance work. In
a performance, the feedback is given subtly from the conductor’s
stand as well as after the performance.
Arioso
Arioso is a technique that encourages students to spontaneously
create music. Just as children develop a repertoire of words and
are able to create original sentences to express themselves,
Woodburn School District Music students are invited to make up
original tunes and songs to express themselves musically.
Independent Practice
The student practices the musical skill or piece on their own for a
certain amount of time. This practice is to eventually reach a
performance level, but also to demonstrate the students progress
so that the instructor can perform a certain amount of formative
assessment along the way.
IMPROVISATION
Undirected Performance Student takes responsibility for their own education by performing
music without the assistance of a teacher or a director. For
example, a small group of students rehearse and perform a piece
of music, on their own, without teacher input.
Student Directed
Performance
Performance of a musical selection by an ensemble using a
student director without the benefit of teacher input. For example, a
student conducts and rehearses a band or a choir without teacher
input.
Independent Practice
The student practices within the structure of a piece of music (i.e:
form, meter, key etc.) how to create or add something new to the
piece that is aesthetically pleasing.
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Improvisation
The creation of a musical response or idea in the moment.
Improvisation can be performed by strictly following the rules of
music theory or using few or no rules (free.)
Composition
The student uses elements of music and theory that they have
learned (i.e: form, key, meter, musical notation) to create an
original piece of music to be performed alone or with others.
Visual Cueing
During performance or rehearsal, the teacher uses physical
gestures to guide student participation in a musical task. When a
conductor shows students the exact moment to begin playing, how
fast or slow the tempo will be, how loudly or softly to begin playing,
and the style of a piece, with one smooth gesture, he or she is
using visual cueing. A teacher may also point to a student without
speaking to communicate an entrance.
VISUALIZATION/AUDITION
Composition
Students, using the rules of music theory, create music and
communicate it through performance and/or notation.
Notation
Students have the ability to look at a musical selection and be able
to perform it. In addition, students have the ability to hear a music
selection and can write it on the staff using the rules of music
theory.
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Principles of Practice
Relationship
A quality music teacher has the capacity to encourage and motivate students towards their
musical and life aspirations. It is helpful that a teacher have an in-depth knowledge of the music
industry and can thus lead students down a musical path if they so choose. Quality music
teachers also have the ability to establish and maintain relationships with large numbers of
students.
Masterful Musicianship
A quality music teacher is a masterful musician and is therefore able to demonstrate masterful
musicianship in at least one musical area (i.e: voice, trumpet, guitar, etc.) The quality music
teacher is also able to demonstrate and/or model for students on a variety of instruments (this is
an aspect of strong music pedagogy). The ability to model and demonstrate is especially
essential during the imitation stage of musical development. As a music teacher is often the
master of ceremonies, as such, it can be additionally helpful that the teacher have stage
presence.
Music Pedagogy
The body of music content knowledge must go deep allowing for a teacher to arrange and
correlate the vast network of interrelationships between theory, history, literature, and
performance. Music Pedagogy includes instruction in music theory, music composition,
mastery of one or more instruments, familiarity with various musical genres and styles,
principles of music education, and client communications. A quality music teacher relies heavily
on all aspects of music pedagogy to ensure comprehensive musicianship of students.
Provides effective feedback
The ability of a distinguished music teacher to provide listen critically and provide in-the-moment
feedback (diagnose and prescribe) is paramount. In such, a quality music teacher is able to
predict potential student errors and scaffold students, through the use of visual and kinesthetic
systems, to help the student to meet the objective. This ability, again, relies heavily on sound
musical pedagogy.
Technology
It only makes sense to mention here that a quality music teacher is also technologically sound.
Smart use of technology is an essential element to making music teaching efficient and
effective.
14
Assessment
Assessments are an integral part of what teachers use to guide instruction (whether in the
imitation, exploration, improvisation, or visualization/audition stage of learning) and are strategic
and purposeful. Comprehensive musicianship through performance relies heavily on ongoing
formative assessment and in the moment, constant, effective feedback that clearly defines
where a student is, where they need to be, and how to achieve the change (Wiggins, 2012).
Students are not only aware of, but participate in the goal setting necessary to move along the
learning continuum (Zimmerman, 1992). Information that is gleaned is documented in a
systematic way and used to inform future instruction (Stiggins, 2002).
Music teachers assess all aspects of comprehensive musicianship. This means that they
assess a musician’s ability to compose and improvise, their ability to read, rehearse and
perform music; their music literacy; music theory; and their knowledge of the historical and
cultural contexts of the repertoire used in ensembles.
Music teachers rely upon a variety of tools to assess the multi facets of comprehensive
musicianship. Stiggins, (2004) states that throughout our school careers, both as students and
as teachers, we have encountered thousands of different assessments. Although the variations
are endless, all of the assessments we have experience and give today fall into one of four
basic categories of methods. These methods include: selected response and short answer,
extended written response, personal communication (which gathers information about students
by interacting with them) and performance assessments (based on observation). Of these
methods quality music instruction relies most heavily on the two latter assessment types:
personal communication and performance assessments.
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Organization
This section did not yet reach a conclusion. WSD Music teachers have agreed to continue to
study/think through and work to a conclusion for the organization section that will answer the
following questions by years end:
How will class time be organized to ensure that students are comprehensive musicians? As the
elements of comprehensive musicianship are included below:
●
●
●
●
●
Rehearsal and Performance
Composition and Improvisation Projects
Literacy
Music Theory and Technology
Historical/Cultural Context
Ideas generated thus far include:
General Music Elementary with State
Programing (30 Min. Daily) K-5
13%
25%
Rehersal & Performance
Composition & Improvization
Literacy
25%
12%
Music Theory & Technology
Historical/ Cultural Context
25%
16
BEGINNING Middle School Instrumental and
Choral Music
3%
Rehersal & Performance
Composition & Improvization
20%
Literacy
15%
60%
Music Theory & Technology
Historical/ Cultural Context
2%
INTERMEDIATE Middle School Instrumental
and Choral Music
10%
Rehersal & Performance
15%
Composition & Improvization
Literacy
15%
55%
Music Theory & Technology
Historical/ Cultural Context
5%
17
ADVANCED Middle School Instrumental and
Choral Music
15%
Rehersal & Performance
Composition & Improvization
15%
50%
Literacy
Music Theory & Technology
Historical/ Cultural Context
15%
5%
High School Daily 50 min. Periods
5%
15%
Rehersal & Performance
Composition & Improvization
50%
15%
Literacy
Music Theory & Technology
Historical/ Cultural Context
15%
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Common Agreements Q & A
What is our common time counting method?
● naming (ta, ta,) (Do, do, do,) and (oneie and a twoie and a …)
What is our common pitch naming method? (do, re, mi, fa, so, la, ti, do)
● (I like this conversation and am willing to go with whatever the group decides. However,
I believe counting is essential to “Comprehensive Musicianship.” Perhaps we can
agree on teaching “ta, ta, la di da” AND “1 & 2 & 3e&a 4.” I’ve never been in a rehearsal
where we “take it from the & of ta…” - Brian R.) Hey Brian, I’m glad you like the
conversation. We won’t deal with this topic right now, but we thought we should put the
questions down that we would later need to answer.
What are the qualities of a well equipt choir room?
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
risers
library space
practice rooms
high ceilings
computer lab
sound system
open space for choreography
combined office space with the Band and Orchestra teachers for collaboration
media tools, i.e.: in focus, smart board, document camera, etc.e
What are the qualities of a well-equipped general music room?
● risers
● library space
● sound system
● smart board
● computer
● I-pads
● Apple TV or Airport express
● floor space for movement
● Recorders
● Hand drums from around the world
Complete set of Orff Instruments
19
References
●
Arwood, E. (2011). Language Function. Philadelphia, PA: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
●
Quentin Norgren, “Traditional and Comprehensive Musicianship: A Survey,” American
Music Teacher (January 1980):34-36.
●
Johnson, Daniel C., “Teaching Using a Constructivist Paradigm,” International Journal of
the Humanitites (2004)
●
Rogers, Michael R., “Teaching Approaches in Music Theory: An Overview of
Pedagogical Philosophies,” (2004) Southern Illinois University
●
Curwen, J. n.d. [c. 1876], Teacher’s Manuel of the Tonic Sol-Fa method, Tonic Sol-Fa
agency, London
●
Graves, K. F. (2005). Scaffolding students' comprhehension of text. The Reading
Teacher, 570-580.
●
Stiggins, R. J. (2002, June 6). Assessment Crisis: The Absence of Assessment FOR
Learning. Retrieved October 26, 2013, from Kappan Professional Journal :
http://electronicportfolios.org/afl/Stiggins-AssessmentCrisis.pdf
●
Wiggins, G. (2012). Seven Keys to Effective Feedback. Educational Leadership, 10-16.
20
Glossary
authentic assessments- a form of assessment in which students are asked to perform subject
appropriate tasks to demonstrate meaningful application of knowledge and skills
authentic compositions- Authentic compositions refer to the vast body of musical repertoire
that was composed for the purpose of performance as opposed to those pieces of music that
were created for the purpose of skill practice.
constructivist theory- a theory which lays emphasis on the ways knowledge is created while
exploring the world, including discovery, hands- on, experimental, collaborative, project-based,
and task-based learning.
differentiate- an approach to teaching that advocates active planning for student differences in
classrooms.
ensemble- the united performance of an entire group (both small and large) of singers,
musicians, etc.
gradual release of responsibility- a structured method of pedagogy framed around a process
devolving responsibility within the learning process from the teacher to the eventual
independence of the learner.
improvise- make something up on spot: to perform or compose something, especially a sketch,
play, song, or piece of music, without any preparation or set text to follow.
music pedagogy- includes instruction in music theory, music composition, mastery of one or
more instruments, familiarity with various musical genres and styles, principles of music
education, and client communications.
polyphonic- having two or more voices or parts, performed simultaneously, creating harmony
scaffolding- the application of temporary supports in helping students to do something that that
they would otherwise be unable to accomplish without the support
sectional- small group rehearsals that prepare students for ensemble rehearsals and
performances
solo- a musical composition or a passage or section in a musical composition written for
performance by one singer or instrumentalist, with or without accompaniment
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student-centered- learning is focused on each student's interests, abilities, interests, and
learning styles, placing the teacher as a facilitator of learning.
visualization/audiation- the process of looking at notation for the first time and accurately
predicting the pitches and rhythms, as well as imagining a series of pitches and rhythms, and
then being able to transfer those pitches into musical notation
22
Appendix Table of Contents
Page Number
Differentiation
23-25
Student Centered
Gradual Release of Responsibility
Scaffolding
Comprehensive Musicianship through Performance
Orff
Kodaly
Delcroze
Suzuki
Effective Feedback
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Differentiation of Instruction
By Carol Ann Tomlinson
WHAT IS DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION?
At its most basic level, differentiation consists of the efforts of teachers to respond to variance
among learners in the classroom. Whenever a teacher reaches out to an individual or small
group to vary his or her teaching in order to create the best learning experience possible, that
teacher is differentiating instruction.
Teachers can differentiate at least four classroom elements based on student readiness,
interest, or learning profile: (1) content--what the student needs to learn or how the student will
get access to the information; (2) process--activities in which the student engages in order to
make sense of or master the content; (3) products--culminating projects that ask the student to
rehearse, apply, and extend what he or she has learned in a unit; and (4) learning environment-the way the classroom works and feels.
Content. Examples of differentiating content at the elementary level include the following: (1)
using reading materials at varying readability levels; (2) putting text materials on tape; (3) using
spelling or vocabulary lists at readiness levels of students; (4) presenting ideas through both
auditory and visual means; (5) using reading buddies; and (6) meeting with small groups to reteach an idea or skill for struggling learners, or to extend the thinking or skills of advanced
learners.
Process. Examples of differentiating process or activities at the elementary level include the
following: (1) using tiered activities through which all learners work with the same important
understandings and skills, but proceed with different levels of support, challenge, or complexity;
(2) providing interest centers that encourage students to explore subsets of the class topic of
particular interest to them; (3) developing personal agendas (task lists written by the teacher
and containing both in-common work for the whole class and work that addresses individual
needs of learners) to be completed either during specified agenda time or as students complete
other work early; (4) offering manipulative's or other hands-on supports for students who need
them; and (5) varying the length of time a student may take to complete a task in order to
provide additional support for a struggling learner or to encourage an advanced learner to
pursue a topic in greater depth.
Products. Examples of differentiating products at the elementary level include the following: (1)
giving students options of how to express required learning (e.g., create a www.eric.ed.gov
ERIC Custom Transformations Team Page 2 of 7 ED443572 2000-08-00 Differentiation of
Instruction in the Elementary Grades. ERIC Digest.puppet show, write a letter, or develop a
mural with labels); (2) using rubrics that match and extend students' varied skills levels; (3)
allowing students to work alone or in small groups on their products; and (4) encouraging
students to create their own product assignments as long as the assignments contain required
elements.
24
Learning Environment. Examples of differentiating learning environment at the elementary
level include: (1) making sure there are places in the room to work quietly and without
distraction, as well as places that invite student collaboration; (2) providing materials that reflect
a variety of cultures and home settings; (3) setting out clear guidelines for independent work
that matches individual needs; (4) developing routines that allow students to get help when
teachers are busy with other students and cannot help them immediately; and (5) helping
students understand that some learners need to move around to learn, while others do better
sitting quietly (Tomlinson, 1995, 1999; Winebrenner, 1992, 1996).
WHAT MAKES DIFFERENTIATION SUCCESSFUL?
The most important factor in differentiation that helps students achieve more and feel more
engaged in school is being sure that what teachers differentiate is high-quality curriculum and
instruction. For example, teachers can make sure that: (1) curriculum is clearly focused on the
information and understandings that are most valued by an expert in a particular discipline; (2)
lessons, activities, and products are designed to ensure that students grapple with, use, and
come to understand those essentials; (3) materials and tasks are interesting to students and
seem relevant to them; (4) learning is active; and (5) there is joy and satisfaction in learning for
each student. One challenge for teachers leading a differentiated classroom is the need to
reflect constantly on the quality of what is being differentiated. Developing three avenues to an
Page 3 of 7ill-defined outcome is of little use. Offering four ways to express trivia is a waste of
planning time and is unlikely to produce impressive results for learners.
There is no recipe for differentiation. Rather, it is a way of thinking about teaching and learning
that values the individual and can be translated into classroom practice in many ways. Still, the
following broad principles and characteristics are useful in establishing a defensible
differentiated classroom:

ASSESSMENT IS ONGOING AND TIGHTLY LINKED TO INSTRUCTION. Teachers are
hunters and gatherers of information about their students and how those students are
learning at a given point. Whatever the teachers can glean about student readiness,
interest, and learning helps the teachers plan next steps in instruction.

TEACHERS WORK HARD TO ENSURE "RESPECTFUL ACTIVITIES" FOR ALL
STUDENTS. Each student's work should be equally interesting, equally appealing, and
equally focused on essential understandings and skills. There should not be a group of
students that frequently does "dull drill" and another that generally does "fluff." Rather,
everyone is continually working with tasks that students and teachers perceive to be
worthwhile and valuable.

FLEXIBLE GROUPING IS A HALLMARK OF THE CLASS. Teachers plan extended
periods of instruction so that all students work with a variety of peers over a period of
days. Sometimes students work with like-readiness peers, sometimes with mixedreadiness groups, sometimes with students who have similar interests, sometimes with
25
students who have different interests, sometimes with peers who learn as they do,
sometimes randomly, and often with the class as a whole. In addition, teachers can
assign students to work groups, and sometimes students will select their own work
groups. Flexible grouping allows students to see themselves in a variety of contexts and
aids the teacher in "auditioning" students in different settings and with different kinds of
work (Tomlinson, 1995, 1999).
Excerpt taken from: ERIC Resource Center www.eric.ed.gov ED443572 2000-08-00 Differentiation of Instruction in
the Elementary Grades. ERIC Digest.
26
Student-Centered
Stepping Aside: Teaching in a Student-Centered
Music Classroom
By Blair, Deborah V.
“While the teacher is still the coordinator and designer of classroom musical experiences, the
teacher does not need to direct every activity every moment. The teacher's role is important, but it
changes to shift the focus of classroom instruction from what the teacher will do to what the students
will figure out. This includes carefully crafting lessons that "allow for" and--in order to be successful-"necessitate" that students be creatively engaged with the music. Such lesson design requires
finding ways that allow students to "be" composers, listeners, or performers--to express new musical
ideas through composing, to find broad and specific musical ideas when listening, to interpret music
when performing. This "allowing for" is quite intentional, and requires that the teacher step back and
no longer be the center of the musical experience, responsible for all the thinking and doing and
musical decision making. It requires the teacher to trust and enable the students' budding
musicianship, rather than requiring students to mimic their teacher's musicianship. “ (Blair, 2009)
Blair, D. V. (2009). Stepping Aside: Teacing ina Student-Centered Music Classroom. Music Educators Journal, 42-45.
27
Gradual Release of Responsibility
Executive Summary for Woodburn School District Biliteracy Framework, 2011.
In 1978, Dolores Durkin published what continues to be one of the most influential studies on classroom
practice. Durkin’s primary interest was in the teaching of reading comprehension. She was interested in
learning how and in what ways teachers spend their time in working to develop comprehension
strategies in their literacy and social studies lessons. Durkin and her colleagues looked at the following
categories of behavior: assessment, comprehension instruction, assignment giving, and student practice
and application.
After observing 17,997 minutes of instruction, Durkin presented an astounding finding: fewer than 50
minutes (.25%) of the 17,997 total minutes contained any actual comprehension instruction. The most
commonly observed teacher behavior across all the minutes was assessment that made up 17.65% of all
the classroom time. Second to assessment was the assigning of comprehension tasks through
worksheets- 14.35% of the time.
As a result of Durkin’s alarming finding- teachers spend far more time assessing and assigning
worksheets than actually teaching- numerous researchers (Kameenui, 1982; Palinscar & Brown, 1983;
Paris, et al, 1982; Raphael & Pearson, 1982; Raphael, Wonacott & Pearson, 1983) set out to make sense
of this surprising finding and to identify effective models of instruction. Analyzing these studies,
Pearson and Gallagher (1983) identified a consistent finding across all these studies:
we can teach comprehension skills if we are able to define them carefully, model for students
methods they can use to complete skill activities, offer plenty of guided practice (with the
teacher offering feedback as the tasks are completed), and then allow students to practice the
skills on their own (p. 28).
After reviewing all these studies, Pearson and Gallagher defined an instructional philosophy that has
since become know as “the gradual release of responsibility” (See Figure 1). This model of teaching and
learning was found to be particularly effective “for students at risk in one way or another” (Pearson &
Gallagher, 1983).
Pearson and Gallagher (1983) best summarize their own instructional philosophy:
Any academic task can be conceptualized as requiring differing portions of teachers and student
responsibility for successful completion. The diagonal line on the graph represents a journey
from total teacher responsibility (on the far left) to total student responsibility (on the far right).
When the teacher is taking all or most of the responsibility for task completion, he is “modeling”
or demonstrating the desired application of some strategy. When the student is taking all or
most of that responsibility, she is “practicing” or “applying” that strategy. What comes in
between those two extremes is the gradual release of responsibility from teacher to student, [or
what Rosenshine might call “guided practice” (p. 34-35).]
28
The authors continue to further explain the model:
The hope in the model is that every student gets to the point where she is able to accept total
responsibility for the task, including the responsibility for determining whether or not she is
applying the strategy appropriately (i.e. self-monitoring). But the model assumes that she will
need some guidance in reaching that stage of independence and that it is precisely the teacher’s
role to provide such guidance. Only partly in jest we like to refer to the model as the model of
“planned obsolescence” on the part of the teacher; but just because you want to end up being
obsolete doesn’t mean you have to start out by being obsolete!
The critical stage of the model is the “guided practice,” the stage in which the teacher gradually
releases the task responsibility to students (p. 35).
FIGURE 1
Proportion of Responsibility for
Task Completion
All Teacher
Joint Responsibility
Modeling
All Student
Practice
or
Application
Gradual Release of
Responsibility
29
What is scaffolding?
By Jennifer Hammond and Pauline Gibbons
Scaffolding, as most people know, is placed around the outside of new buildings to allow
builders access to the emerging structure as it rises from the ground. Once the building is able
to support itself, the builder removes the scaffolding. The metaphor of scaffolding has been
widely used in recent years to argue that, just as builders provide essential but temporary
support, teachers need to provide temporary supporting structures to assist learners to develop
new understandings, new concepts, and new abilities. As the learner acquires these skills, so
teachers need to withdraw that support, only to provide further support for extended or new
tasks, understandings and concepts.
While the metaphor has some obvious limitations, scaffolding is a term that resonates with
teachers. Over the past 20 years or so it has been taken up with enthusiasm and, although
sometimes used loosely to refer to different things, its popularity indicates that it captures
something that teachers perceive to be central to their core business — something that is at the
heart of effective teaching. Mercer (1994) suggests that teachers find the concept of scaffolding
appealing because it resonates with their intuitive conceptions of what it means to intervene
successfully in students’ learning. He argues that the term offers what is lacking in much of the
literature on education — that is, an effective conceptual metaphor for the quality of teacher
intervention in learning.
The nature of scaffolding in educational contexts
Wood, Bruner and Ross (1976) were the first to use the term scaffolding as a metaphor in the
learning context. They used the term to describe the nature of parental tutoring in the language
development of young children. They showed that parents who were ‘successful scaffolders’
focused their children’s attention on the task at hand and kept them motivated and working on
the task. Such parents divided the task into manageable components and directed their
children’s attention to the essential and relevant features.
In addition, these parents demonstrated and modelled successful performance, while keeping
the task at an appropriate level of difficulty. In this way the parents provided support through
intervention that was tailored to the demands of the task, and determined by the child’s ability to
complete it. Bruner (1978: 19) describes scaffolding as:
…the steps taken to reduce the degrees of freedom taken in carrying out some
task so that the child can concentrate on the difficult skill she is in the process of
acquiring.
In the context of classroom interaction, the term scaffolding has been taken up to describe the
temporary assistance that teachers provide for their students to assist them to complete a task
or develop new understandings, so that they will later be able to complete similar tasks alone.
Maybin, Mercer and Steirer (1992: 186) describe this as the ‘temporary but essential nature of
30
the mentor’s assistance’ in supporting learners to carry out tasks successfully. There are a
number of significant features in this use of the term.
The relationship between scaffolding and good teaching
A look at the key features of scaffolding gives rise to questions about the relationship between
scaffolding and teaching more generally. Do these features apply specifically to scaffolding? Do
they distinguish scaffolding from other kinds of teaching? In what ways is scaffolding different to
what could simply be described as good teaching?
Questions of ‘what counts’ as scaffolding in the classroom, and of the relationship between
scaffolding and what might be thought of as ‘good teaching’, have been tackled by a number of
researchers (eg Maybin et al 1992; Mercer 1994; Webster, Beveridge and Reed 1996). Maybin
et al (1992) write: [Scaffolding] is not just any assistance which helps a learner accomplish a
task. It is help which will enable a learner to accomplish a task which they would not have been
quite able to manage on their own, and it is help which is intended to bring the learner closer to
a state of competence which will enable them eventually to complete such a task on their own.
Mercer (1994), drawing on his earlier work with colleagues, proposes the following criteria for
distinguishing scaffolding from other kinds of teaching and learning:
• Students could not succeed without the teacher’s intervention.
• The teacher aims for some new level of independent competence on the students’ part.
• The teacher has the learning of some specific skill or concept in mind.
• There must be evidence of students successfully completing the particular task at hand.
• There must also be evidence that learners are now able to go on to deal independently with
subsequent related tasks or problems.
Mercer argues that such criteria allow educational researchers to ‘discuss and explain
differences in the quality of intellectual support which teachers provide for learners, while
sufficiently stringent to exclude some kinds of “help” which teachers provide’.
As a simple example of the difference between ‘scaffolding’ and ‘help’, consider a situation in
which a student is unable to spell a particular word. In this situation, the teacher could ‘help’ by
providing the correct spelling. Alternatively, the teacher could ‘scaffold’ how to think about the
spelling by, for example, encouraging the student to think about the sounds of the word, and
how they could be represented. Of course, there are times when on-the-spot ‘help’ is a valuable
kind of assistance. The point we are making here is that scaffolding, in our definition, is
qualitatively different from ‘help’ in that it is aimed at supporting students to tackle futuretasks in
new contexts — or, as we argued earlier, to know how to think, not simply what to think.
Gibbons, J. H. (2005). What is Scaffolding? In N. C. Research, Teachers' voices 8: Explicity supporting reading and
writing in the classroom (pp. 8-16). Sydney: Marquarie University.
31
Comprehensive Musicianship through Performance
By Patricia Anne O’Toole
The concept of comprehensive musicianship has been discussed since 1965 and refers to the
interdisciplinary study of music. Although performing ensembles might seem like the logical
place to teach across disciplines, many directors focus solely on performing skills. In this
manner, an instrumentalist might learn from playing fifteen pieces of music in a band is fifteen
second-clarinet parts. Many teachers have been troubled by Charles Benner’s (1972) summary
of the problem:
It can be inferred that performing group participation has little effect on musical behavior other
than the acquisition of performance skills, unless there is a planned effort by the teacher to
enrich the performing experience with additional kinds of musical understanding (p. 10).
There have been a number of projects that have addressed there issues and that have created
models for teaching music comprehensively: The Hawaii Curriculum Project (1967-1972),
Teaching Musicianship in the High School Band by Joseph Labuta (1972), Teaching
Comprehensive Musicianship through Classroom Music by William Thomson (1974), and
Blueprint for Band by Robert Garofalo (1976). All of these projects served as resources for the
Wisconsin CMP Project (est. 1977)
Comprehensive Musicianship through Performance (CMP) offers ensemble directors a model
for how to teach students to perform with a historical and theoretical understanding of the music
and the creative process. The model is represented by a five-point star:





Score analysis – begins with discovering the inner-workings of a composition as well as the
historical and social contexts, all of which leads to planning thoughtful instruction.
Outcomes – there are several different types of learning outcomes (skill, musical knowledge,
and affective outcomes)
Strategies – are sensitive to learning styles and promote a student-centered classroom
Assessment – a variety of models for assessing learning within ensembles, including paperand-pencil tests, observational and performance assessments, journals, and portfolios.
Music Selection – The key to good teaching is working with quality literature. CMP gives an
overview of the elements of quality music and provides evaluative checklists to determine
the breadth of repertoire selection over a three to six year period. (O’Toole, 2003)
Excerpt from: O'Toole, P. A. (2003). Shaping Sound Musicians: An Innovative Approach to Teaching Comprehensive
Musicianship through Performance. Chicago: GIA Publications.
p. xi-xiii
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Orff
“AOSA supports and promotes Orff Schulwerk as a model for music and movement education in
schools in the United States because it offers a potential for active and creative music making
by all children, not just the musically talented. This approach to learning, developed by Carl Orff
and Gunild Keetman, builds musicianship through singing, playing instruments, speech, and
movement. Active music making is the core of this philosophy, supporting both the conceptual
and affective development of children. Active learners develop more thorough and better longterm understanding of the material and ideas involved. Children who regularly improvise and
create their own dances and musical settings are uniquely prepared to solve problems in many
other contexts…
…Orff Schulwerk music and movement pedagogy contributes to development of the individual
far beyond specific skills and understandings in the arts. These skills and procedures have a
wider application and value in several areas:

Intellectual: The critical-thinking and problem-solving tasks involved in Orff Schulwerk call
upon both linear and intuitive intellectual capacities. The carrying out of creative ideas calls
upon organizational abilities as well as artistic knowledge and skill.

Social: Orff Schulwerk is a group model, requiring the cooperative interaction of everyone
involved, including the instructor. It is important that artistic development occurs within a
satisfying and supportive human environment. Tolerance, helpfulness, patience, and other
cooperative attitudes must be cultivated consciously. The ensemble setting requires
sensitivity to the total group and awareness of the role of each individual within it. Problem
solving, improvisation, and the group composing process provide opportunities for
developing leadership.

Emotional: The artistic media involved—music and movement—provide the individual with
avenues for non-verbal expression of emotions. The exploratory and improvisatory activities
can provide a focus for emotions, a means for release of tension and frustration, and a
vehicle for the enhancement of self-esteem.

Aesthetic: As knowledge of and skills in music and movement grow, students will have
opportunities to develop standards of what is considered “good” within the styles being
explored.” (American Orff Schulwerk Association, 2013)
Excerpt from : American Orff Schulwerk Association. (2013, October 31). What is Orff Schulwerk. Chagrin Falls,
Ohio, United States . http://aosa.org/
33
The Kodály Concept




Is a philosophy of education and a concept of teaching.
Is a comprehensive program to train basic musical skills and teach the reading and writing
of music.
Is an integration of many of the best ideas, techniques, and approaches to music education.
Is an experience-based approach to teaching.
Essential and Key Elements of the Concept
Singing





We should first learn to love music as human sound and as an experience that enriches life.
The voice is the most natural instrument and one which every person possesses.
Kodály called singing "the essence" of this concept.
Singing is a powerful means of musical expression.
What we produce by ourselves is better learned; and there is a stronger feeling of success
and accomplishment.
 Learning through singing should precede instrumental training.
 It is in the child's best interest to understand the basics of reading music before beginning
the difficult task of learning the technique of an instrument.
 What do we sing?
o Folk songs and games of the American Culture
o Traditional children's songs and games
o Folk songs of other cultures
o Music of the masters from all ages
o Pedagogical exercises written by master composers
 Singing best develops the inner, musical ear.
"If we ourselves sing often, this provides a deep experience of happiness in music. Through our
own musical activities, we learn to know the pulsation, rhythm, and shape of melody. The
enjoyment given encourages the study of instruments and the listening to other pieces of music
as well."(Kodály, 1964)
Folk Music

Folk music is the music of the people. There can be no better material for singing than the
songs and games used by children for centuries.
 Folk Music has all the basic characteristics needed to teach the foundations of music and to
develop a love of music - a love that will last a life time.
 Folk music is the classical music of the people, and, as such, is a perfect bridge leading to
and working hand-in-hand with-art music.
"The compositions of every country, if original, are based on the songs of its own people. That is
why their folk songs must be constantly sung, observed, and studied." (Kodály, 1964)
Solfège


Solfège is the best tool for developing the inner ear.
It is an invaluable aid in building all musical skills:
o Sight singing
o Dictation
o Ear training
34
o
o
o
o


Part hearing
Hearing and singing harmony
Perceiving form
Developing memory
The moveable do system, highly developed in English choral training, was advocated by
Kodály as a tool for teaching musical literacy.
Use of the pentatone (do, re, me, sol, la) was recommended by Kodály for early training of
children because of its predominance in their folk music.
Music and Quality

We believe that music enhances the quality of life. So that it may have the impact it
deserves, only the best music should be used for teaching:
o Folk music, which is the most representative of the culture
o The best music composed by the masters
 Quality music demands quality teaching:
o Teachers need to be as well-trained as possible
o Teachers' training must be well-rounded
o Teachers need to develop their musical and vocal skills to the highest degree possible
"The pure soul of the child must be considered sacred; what we implant there must stand every
test, and if we plant anything bad, we poison his soul for life." (Selected Writings, p. 141)
Development of the Complete Musician

Kodály training is a complete and comprehensive approach to music education which meets
the National Standards for Arts Education as published by MENC, © 1994.
 The development of all skill areas begins very early with simple tasks required of all the
students. As knowledge grows, skills are developed further in a sequential manner.
 In addition to music reading and writing which are begun at an early stage, the following skill
areas are also developed: part-singing, part-hearing, improvisation, intonation, listening,
memory, phrasing and understanding of form.
 An awareness and knowledge of musical styles develops as skills become more proficient.
"The good musician understands the music without a score as well and understands the score
without the music. The ear should not need the eye nor the eye the (outer) ear." (Kodály quoting
Schumann: Selected Writings, p. 192)
Sequencing



Presentation of materials, concepts, and development of skills can be done in a meaningful
way only if the curriculum is well sequenced.
A carefully planned sequence, well taught, will result in successful experiences for children
and teacher. Success breeds success - and fosters a love of music.
A Kodály sequenced curriculum is an experience-based approach to learning rather than a
cognitive developmental approach. (Organization of American Kodaly Educators, 2012)
Excerpt from: Organization of American Kodaly Educators. (2012). The Kodaly Concept. Los Angeles, CA.
www.oake.org
35
Delcroze
The Dalcroze approach to music education teaches an understanding of music – its
fundamental concepts, its expressive meanings, and its deep connections to other arts
and human activities – through ground breaking techniques incorporating rhythmic
movement, aural training, and physical, vocal and instrumental improvisation.
Since the early 1900’s, the influence of Emile Jaques-Dalcroze has been felt worldwide
in the field of music as well as in dance, theatre, therapy and education. In his own time,
Dalcroze’s work was considered avant-garde and it met with some resistance, yet he
continued to probe the topic of music education reform throughout his life. Today, his
basic ideas of teaching and learning have been confirmed by contemporary research.
Dalcroze was professor of harmony and solfège at the Conservatory in Geneva in 1892.
He realized that his students could not actually hear the harmonies they were writing.
Their playing showed little sense of rhythmic vitality. In solfège, he began to devise ear
training games to develop more acute inner hearing. These games sharpened the
students’ perceptions and resulted in more sensitive responses to the musical aspects
of performance: timing, articulation, tone quality, and phrase shape. Dalcroze noticed
his students would exhibit subtle, spontaneous movements – swaying, tapping a foot, a
slight swinging of the arms – as they sang. The body was conscious of the life and
movement of the music.
Dalcroze capitalized on these natural, instinctive gestures. He asked his students to
walk and swing their arms, or to conduct while they sang or listened to him improvise at
the piano. He called this study of music through movement “eurhythmics,” from the
Greek roots “eu” and “rythmos” meaning “good flow.”
Dalcroze continued to experiment with eurhythmics, giving demonstrations of his
method throughout Switzerland and Western Europe. In 1910 he was invited by the
Dhorn brothers, wealthy German industrialists, to Hellerau, Germany where they built a
large school for him. Several hundred students lived and studied in Hellerau, and it
became a world-famous center for the arts, devoted to the education of the complete
human being. In 1913, the Gluck opera “Orpheus” was performed at the school, with
Dalcroze conducting a chorus and soloists trained in eurhythmics. The production was a
spectacular demonstration of music, movement, lighting, and staging representing the
culmination of Dalcroze’s work at Hellerau. The school closed at the onset of World War
I and Dalcroze returned to Geneva, where the Emile Jaques-Dalcroze Institute was
founded in 1915. Today, the Dalcroze Institute in Geneva continues to attract students
from around the world who wish to study this remarkable method of music education.
In a eurhythmics class, students typically are barefoot and are moving in some way – in
locomotion around the room, in gestures with hands, arms, heads, upper bodies, either
in groups or alone. Their movements are responsive to the music that is sounding in the
room. The teacher probably is improvising this music at the piano, although sometimes
36
recorded or composed music is used. The task typically is to move in space using
certain guidelines that are specific to the occasion or musical piece. The teacher shapes
the music not only to the rules of the task, but to what he or she observes the students
doing. The students, in turn, shape their accomplishment of the task to the nature of the
music – its tempo, dynamics, texture, phrase structure, and style.
The body is trained to be the instrument, not only of the performance of eurhythmics,
but of the perception of music. The body is understood as the original musical
instrument, the one through which everyone first realizes music in both its senses:
apprehending and creating, and the primary, personal, trainable utensil for musical
understanding and production. The movements a student makes in a eurhythmics class
do not have the essential purpose of training the body to convey a choreographic
picture to an audience. Rather, their essential purpose is to convey information back to
the mover himself. The movements set up a circuit of information and response moving
continuously between brain and body, which, with training and experience, rise to ever
higher levels of precision, coordination, and expressive power.
The comprehensive Dalcroze approach consists of three components: Eurhythmics,
which teaches concepts of rhythm, structure, and musical expression through
movement; Solfège, which develops an understanding of pitch, scale, and tonality
through activities emphasizing aural comprehension and vocal improvisation; and
Improvisation, which develops an understanding of form and meaning through
spontaneous musical creation using movement, voice and instruments. It was
Dalcroze’s intent that the three subjects be intertwined so that the development of the
inner ear, an inner muscular sense, and creative expression can work together to form
the core of basic musicianship.
Certified Dalcroze teachers work in conservatories, universities, public and private
schools, early childhood programs, and in private studios. The Dalcroze approach is
studied by performers, teachers, dancers, actors, young children, and senior citizens.
Those wishing to pursue Dalcroze teacher training may do so at recognized training
centers throughout the United States. Due to the intensive training process and the
many sophisticated skills required to be a Dalcroze teacher, the number of certified
teachers remains small, but their impact on music education is significant.
The continued study of Dalcroze eurhythmics, solfège and improvisation tends to
heighten concentration and focus, improve coordination and balance, enrich hearing,
and sharpen the senses. In a Dalcroze class, students are freed from the constraints of
formal performance to experience the deep musical knowledge and feeling evoked
through movement. When they have discovered themselves as the source of their own
musicality, they have much to bring to the practice room or to the stage. Based on the
philosophy that we are the instrument, Dalcroze invites us to live what we hear. (Dalcroz
Society of America, 2013)
Source: Dalcroz Society of America. (2013). What is Dalcroze?
37
Suzuki - Every Child Can Learn
More than fifty years ago, Japanese violinist Shinichi Suzuki realized the implications of the fact
that children the world over learn to speak their native language with ease. He began to apply
the basic principles of language acquisition to the learning of music, and called his method
the mother-tongue approach. The ideas of parent responsibility, loving encouragement, constant
repetition, etc., are some of the special features of the Suzuki approach.
Parent Involvement
As when a child learns to talk, parents are involved in the musical learning of their child. They
attend lessons with the child and serve as “home teachers” during the week. One parent often
learns to play before the child, so that s/he understands what the child is expected to do.
Parents work with the teacher to create an enjoyable learning environment.
Early Beginning
The early years are crucial for developing mental processes and muscle coordination. Listening
to music should begin at birth; formal training may begin at age three or four, but it is never too
late to begin.
Listening
Children learn words after hearing them spoken hundreds of times by others. Listening to music
every day is important, especially listening to pieces in the Suzuki repertoire so the child knows
them immediately.
Repetition
Constant repetition is essential in learning to play an instrument. Children do not learn a word or
piece of music and then discard it. They add it to their vocabulary or repertoire, gradually using
it in new and more sophisticated ways.
Encouragement
As with language, the child’s effort to learn an instrument should be met with sincere praise and
encouragement. Each child learns at his/her own rate, building on small steps so that each one
can be mastered. Children are also encouraged to support each other’s efforts, fostering an
attitude of generosity and cooperation.
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Learning with Other Children
In addition to private lessons, children participate in regular group lessons and performance at
which they learn from an are motivated by each other.
Graded Repertoire
Children do not practice exercises to learn to talk, but use language for its natural purpose of
communication and self-expression. Pieces in the Suzuki repertoire are designed to present
technical problems to be learned in the context of the music rather than through dry technical
exercises.
Delayed Reading
Children learn to read after their ability to talk has been well established. in the same way,
children should develop basic technical competence on their instruments before being taught to
read music. (Suzukie Association of the Americas, 2013)
Source: Suzuki Association of the Americas. (2013). About the Suzuki Method: Every Child Can Learn.
https://suzukiassociation.org/teachers/twinkler/
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Feedback Essentials
By Grant Wiggins
Whether feedback is just there to be grasped or is provided by another person, helpful feedback is goal-referenced;
tangible and transparent; actionable; user-friendly (specific and personalized); timely; ongoing; and consistent.
Goal-Referenced
Effective feedback requires that a person has a goal, takes action to achieve the goal, and receives goal-related
information about his or her actions. I told a joke—why? To make people laugh. I wrote a story to engage the reader
with vivid language and believable dialogue that captures the characters' feelings. I went up to bat to get a hit. If I am
not clear on my goals or if I fail to pay attention to them, I cannot get helpful feedback (nor am I likely to achieve my
goals).
Information becomes feedback if, and only if, I am trying to cause something and the information tells me whether I
am on track or need to change course. If some joke or aspect of my writing isn't working—a revealing, nonjudgmental
phrase—I need to know.
Note that in everyday situations, goals are often implicit, although fairly obvious to everyone. I don't need to
announce when telling the joke that my aim is to make you laugh. But in school, learners are often unclear about the
specific goal of a task or lesson, so it is crucial to remind them about the goal and the criteria by which they should
self-assess. For example, a teacher might say,

The point of this writing task is for you to make readers laugh. So, when rereading your draft or getting feedback

from peers, ask, How funny is this? Where might it be funnier?
As you prepare a table poster to display the findings of your science project, remember that the aim is to
interest people in your work as well as to describe the facts you discovered through your experiment. Selfassess your work against those two criteria using these rubrics. The science fair judges will do likewise.
Tangible and Transparent
Any useful feedback system involves not only a clear goal, but also tangible results related to the goal. People laugh,
chuckle, or don't laugh at each joke; students are highly attentive, somewhat attentive, or inattentive to my teaching.
Even as little children, we learn from such tangible feedback. That's how we learn to walk; to hold a spoon; and to
understand that certain words magically yield food, drink, or a change of clothes from big people. The best feedback
is so tangible that anyone who has a goal can learn from it.
Alas, far too much instructional feedback is opaque, as revealed in a true story a teacher told me years ago. A
student came up to her at year's end and said, "Miss Jones, you kept writing this same word on my English papers all
year, and I still don't know what it means." "What's the word? " she asked. "Vag-oo," he said. (The word was vague!)
Sometimes, even when the information is tangible and transparent, the performers don't obtain it—either because
they don't look for it or because they are too busy performing to focus on the effects. In sports, novice tennis players
or batters often don't realize that they're taking their eyes off the ball; they often protest, in fact, when that feedback is
given. (Constantly yelling "Keep your eye on the ball!" rarely works.) And we have all seen how new teachers are
sometimes so busy concentrating on "teaching" that they fail to notice that few students are listening or learning.
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That's why, in addition to feedback from coaches or other able observers, video or audio recordings can help us
perceive things that we may not perceive as we perform; and by extension, such recordings help us learn to look for
difficult-to-perceive but vital information. I recommend that all teachers videotape their own classes at least once a
month. It was a transformative experience for me when I did it as a beginning teacher. Concepts that had been
crystal clear to me when I was teaching seemed opaque and downright confusing on tape—captured also in the
many quizzical looks of my students, which I had missed in the moment.
Actionable
Effective feedback is concrete, specific, and useful; it provides actionable information. Thus, "Good job!" and "You did
that wrong" and B+ are not feedback at all. We can easily imagine the learners asking themselves in response to
these comments, What specifically should I do more or less of next time, based on this information? No idea. They
don't know what was "good" or "wrong" about what they did.
Actionable feedback must also be accepted by the performer. Many so-called feedback situations lead to arguments
because the givers are not sufficiently descriptive; they jump to an inference from the data instead of simply
presenting the data. For example, a supervisor may make the unfortunate but common mistake of stating that "many
students were bored in class." That's a judgment, not an observation. It would have been far more useful and less
debatable had the supervisor said something like, "I counted ongoing inattentive behaviors in 12 of the 25 students
once the lecture was underway. The behaviors included texting under desks, passing notes, and making eye contact
with other students. However, after the small-group exercise began, I saw such behavior in only one student."
Such care in offering neutral, goal-related facts is the whole point of the clinical supervision of teaching and of good
coaching more generally. Effective supervisors and coaches work hard to carefully observe and comment on what
they observed, based on a clear statement of goals. That's why I always ask when visiting a class, "What would you
like me to look for and perhaps count?" In my experience as a teacher of teachers, I have always found such pure
feedback to be accepted and welcomed. Effective coaches also know that in complex performance situations,
actionable feedback about what went right is as important as feedback about what didn't work.
User-Friendly
Even if feedback is specific and accurate in the eyes of experts or bystanders, it is not of much value if the user
cannot understand it or is overwhelmed by it. Highly technical feedback will seem odd and confusing to a novice.
Describing a baseball swing to a 6-year-old in terms of torque and other physics concepts will not likely yield a better
hitter. Too much feedback is also counterproductive; better to help the performer concentrate on only one or two key
elements of performance than to create a buzz of information coming in from all sides.
Expert coaches uniformly avoid overloading performers with too much or too technical information. They tell the
performers one important thing they noticed that, if changed, will likely yield immediate and noticeable improvement
("I was confused about who was talking in the dialogue you wrote in this paragraph"). They don't offer advice until
they make sure the performer understands the importance of what they saw.
Timely
In most cases, the sooner I get feedback, the better. I don't want to wait for hours or days to find out whether my
students were attentive and whether they learned, or which part of my written story works and which part doesn't. I
say "in most cases" to allow for situations like playing a piano piece in a recital. I don't want my teacher or the
audience barking out feedback as I perform. That's why it is more precise to say that good feedback is "timely" rather
than "immediate."
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A great problem in education, however, is untimely feedback. Vital feedback on key performances often comes days,
weeks, or even months after the performance—think of writing and handing in papers or getting back results on
standardized tests. As educators, we should work overtime to figure out ways to ensure that students get more timely
feedback and opportunities to use it while the attempt and effects are still fresh in their minds.
Before you say that this is impossible, remember that feedback does not need to come only from the teacher, or even
from people at all. Technology is one powerful tool—part of the power of computer-assisted learning is unlimited,
timely feedback and opportunities to use it. Peer review is another strategy for managing the load to ensure lots of
timely feedback; it's essential, however, to train students to do small-group peer review to high standards, without
immature criticisms or unhelpful praise.
Ongoing
Adjusting our performance depends on not only receiving feedback but also having opportunities to use it. What
makes any assessment in education formative is not merely that it precedes summative assessments, but that the
performer has opportunities, if results are less than optimal, to reshape the performance to better achieve the goal. In
summative assessment, the feedback comes too late; the performance is over.
Thus, the more feedback I can receive in real time, the better my ultimate performance will be. This is how all highly
successful computer games work. If you play Angry Birds, Halo, Guitar Hero, or Tetris, you know that the key to
substantial improvement is that the feedback is both timely and ongoing. When you fail, you can immediately start
over—sometimes even right where you left off—to get another opportunity to receive and learn from the feedback.
(This powerful feedback loop is also user-friendly. Games are built to reflect and adapt to our changing need, pace,
and ability to process information.)
It is telling, too, that performers are often judged on their ability to adjust in light of feedback. The ability to quickly
adapt one's performance is a mark of all great achievers and problem solvers in a wide array of fields. Or, as many
little league coaches say, "The problem is not making errors; you will all miss many balls in the field, and that's part of
learning. The problem is when you don't learn from the errors."
Consistent
To be useful, feedback must be consistent. Clearly, performers can only adjust their performance successfully if the
information fed back to them is stable, accurate, and trustworthy. In education, that means teachers have to be on the
same page about what high-quality work is. Teachers need to look at student work together, becoming more
consistent over time and formalizing their judgments in highly descriptive rubrics supported by anchor products and
performances. By extension, if we want student-to-student feedback to be more helpful, students have to be trained
to be consistent the same way we train teachers, using the same exemplars and rubrics.
Progress Toward a Goal
In light of these key characteristics of helpful feedback, how can schools most effectively use feedback as part of a
system of formative assessment? The key is to gear feedback to long-term goals.
Let's look at how this works in sports. My daughter runs the mile in track. At the end of each lap in races and practice
races, the coaches yell out split times (the times for each lap) and bits of feedback ("You're not swinging your arms!"
"You're on pace for 5:15"), followed by advice ("Pick it up—you need to take two seconds off this next lap to get in
under 5:10!").
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My daughter and her teammates are getting feedback (and advice) about how they are performing now compared
with their final desired time. My daughter's goal is to run a 5:00 mile. She has already run 5:09. Her coach is telling
her that at the pace she just ran in the first lap, she is unlikely even to meet her best time so far this season, never
mind her long-term goal. Then, he tells her something descriptive about her current performance (she's not swinging
her arms) and gives her a brief piece of concrete advice (take two seconds off the next lap) to make achievement of
the goal more likely.
The ability to improve one's result depends on the ability to adjust one's pace in light of ongoing feedback that
measures performance against a concrete, long-term goal. But this isn't what most school district "pacing guides" and
grades on "formative" tests tell you. They yield a grade against recent objectives taught, not useful feedback against
the final performance standards. Instead of informing teachers and students at an interim date whether they are on
track to achieve a desired level of student performance by the end of the school year, the guide and the test grade
just provide a schedule for the teacher to follow in delivering content and a grade on that content. It's as if at the end
of the first lap of the mile race, My daughter's coach simply yelled out, "B+ on that lap!" (Wiggins, 2012)
Excerpt from: Wiggins, G. (2012). Seven Keys to Effective Feedback. Educational Leadership, 10-16.
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