Running head: FORMULAIC SEQUENCES IN L2 SPEECH FLUENCY
The Uses and Functions of Formulaic Sequences in the Development of Speech
Fluency in English as A Second Language (ESL)
Jing Fang (Elise)
The Pennsylvania State University
APLNG 482Y
2013 Fall
FORMULAIC SEQUENCES IN L2 SPEECH FLUENCY
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The Uses and Functions of Formulaic Sequences in the Development of Speech
Fluency in English as A Second Language (ESL)
Introduction
In the past few decades, linguistic scholarship about formulaic sequences has
significantly increased. Educators and researchers interested in English language learning
seem to be specifically focused on the relationship between formulaic language and the
development of the fluency in second-language (L2) speech.
As early as 1983, Pawley and Syder identified that formulaic sequences present the
most challenging phase in language acquisition for L2 speakers. For advanced learners,
the major problem can lie in the production of perfectly grammatical utterances that are
simply not the preferred idiomatic sequences used by native speakers. In late 1900s,Wray
indicated that a speech community has a ‘preferred way’ of saying something. For
speakers within a particular community, certain word-strings are more likely to be
selected as the default expression of a given idea for they are prioritized during
processing. Other researchers such as Wood continued to investigate the link between the
use of formulaic language and the development of speech fluency in both children and
adults learners of L2. Wood (2006) conducted a longitudinal investigation that focuses on
the role of formulaic sequences in L2 acquisition, particularly in the development of
speech fluency. He concluded that formulaic sequences can facilitate fluency in speech
by making pauses shorter and less frequent, and allowing longer runs of speech between
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pauses.
In this article, various definitions of formulaic sequence and speech fluency will be
examined, and then the research evidence of the role of formulaic sequences in L2
acquisition and production will be identified, particularly the relationship between the use
of formulaic sequences and the development of L2 speech fluency. Furthermore, teaching
implications are investigated, with particular emphasis on providing more opportunities
for input and fostering interaction to facilitate the acquisition of a repertoire of formulaic
language.
Speech fluency
The existing literature on speech fluency strongly suggested that there has been a
considerable agreement on determining the types of measurable temporal variables to be
tracked in speech. These are rate of speech, measured as syllables uttered per minute,
amount of pauses and the length of runs, measured as number of syllables uttered
between pauses. It has provided reliable measures with which to determine fluency in
both first-language (L1) and L2 speech production. Studies have shown that pause time in
L1 speech is generally shorter than that in L2 speech, and L2 pause time and frequencies
reduce over time.
In studies of uses of formulaic sequences in the foundation of fluency (Pawley &
Syder, 1983; Wood, 2006), and research associating with spoken fluency and its
development (Wood, 2009), it has shown that native speakers or highly fluent L2 learners
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most often have longer runs and shorter pause time, which are usually considered as key
indicators of fluency. It is likely attributed to fluent speakers having a larger repertoire of
formulaic sequences to help balance skills, attention, and planning during speech.
Pawley and Syder (1983) also suggested that mastery of a body of lexicalized
sentence stems plays a direct role on achieving fluency. Native speakers do not produce
speech word-for-word, rather they focus on rhythm and variety, combine memorized
chunks and produce creative connections of lexical strings as well as concepts. It seems
likely that fluency is greatly enhanced by the control of large numbers of formulaic
sequences.
Formulaic sequences
Draw upon many researchers, definitions of formulaic sequences considerably focus
on the notion that they are multi-word units or strings of language, and they are stored in
and retrieved from long-term memory as if they were single lexical units in spontaneous
speech production. As early as 1983, Pawley and Syder asserted that only minority of
spoken clauses is novel, and that memorized chunks form a high proportion of the speech
of everyday conversation. They observed that people tend to take advantage of standard
and predicable phrases to express a certain meaning, rather than make use of
grammatically but communicatively unlikely ways of expressing the same meaning or
function. In early 1990’s, Nattinger and DeCarrico reinforced the concept of formulaic
sequences, and defined formulaic sequences as lexical phrases that pragmatically
FORMULAIC SEQUENCES IN L2 SPEECH FLUENCY
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specialized in discourse functions and served as a sort of bridge between lexis and
grammar. They stated that formulaic sequences cover a large proportion of the types of
utterances produced in a language.
Furthermore, a great deal of variety and diversity in formulaic sequences are
identified in literature. In 2000, Wray concluded two main explanations for formulaicity
in language-- saving processing resources and achieving interactional functions.
Afterwards, Wray and Perkins continued identifying three major types of
socio-international function for formulaic sequences. These are manipulation of others,
asserting separate identity and asserting group identity, all of them relate to aspects of
how we want others to treat or view us. Researchers have also noted that formulaic
sequences help learners cope with the complexity of various social situations, make
orderly and clear communication, and develop a sense of group identity.
Formulaic sequences in facilitating fluency in L2 speech
Due to lack of the necessary sensitivity and adequate experience of the new
language, L2 learners may have difficulty figuring out the most idiomatic ways of
expressing a particular idea even though they can come up with various grammatically
right lexical phrases. Gaining full command of a new language requires L2 learners to
have a good awareness of the native speakers’ preferences for certain sequences of words
in communication. As Nattinger and DeCarrico (1983) pointed out, the use of formulaic
speech is not just a language learning strategy that no longer be used once language
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‘chunks’ have been learned, rather, it is an essential component of both fluent reception
and production.
In a research article by Wood (2002), he made a step further in exploring the
relationship between speech fluency and the use of large numbers of lexical phrases and
sentence stems. He found out that a large proportion of the most familiar concepts and
speech acts can be expressed formulaically, and if a speaker can pull these readily from
memory as wholes, fluency is enhanced. This can be attributed to reduced amount of
planning, processing as well as encoding for it gives speakers time to pay attention to
other tasks while speaking, such as generating specific lexical items, planning the next
unit of discourse, syntactic processing of novel pieces, and so on.
Furthermore, there is some empirical evidence that formulaic sequences have
functions in facilitating the development in L2 speech fluency. Researchers such as Wood
conducted a series of studies that mainly focus on this issue. In his longitudinal study that
investigates the close link between use of formulaic sequences and L2 fluency in
spontaneous spoken narrative retelling, Wood (2006) collected narrative speech samples
monthly from a group of mixed L1 leaners and adopted native speaker judgment in
analyzing data. The results showed that the use of formulaic sequences played a clear role
in facilitating the development of speech fluency over time. In particular, the participants
employed a range of uses and functions of the sequences to extend the length of runs
between pauses- a key indicator of increased fluency. Afterwards, five categories of
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fluency-enhancing uses of formulaic sequences were categorized and identified. These
are repetition of a formula to extend a run of speech; use of multiple formulas to extend a
run; reliance on repetition of one formula; use of self-talk and filler formulas; and use of
formulas as rhetorical devices in spoken narrative.
These categories of the use of formulaic sequences expand somewhat on those of
Wray (2002, p.97), who determined four main functions of formulas in aiding speech
production. They include enabling the manipulation of information; allowing a
continuing flow of speech to occur while the conscious mind is focused elsewhere in
communication; shortening the processing route of speech by bypassing the need for
assemble of components or use of short-term memory; and signaling the organization of
spoken discourse. Wray’s summary of the function of formulaic sequences in speech
production mainly focuses on their roles in controlling the flow of information, allowing
time for mental processing of other aspects of speech and signaling the organization of
speech. Whereas, in Wood’s categories, the functions of self-talk and extending the length
of runs of fluent speech are also emphasized.
Wood (2009) continued exploring the relationship between uses of formulaic
sequences and L2 speech performance. He conducted a study that mainly focused on the
effects of focused instruction of formulaic sequences and fluency on the performance of a
Japanese learner of English. In this study, spontaneous narratives of this leaner were
collected in an intensive study abroad situation. The use of formulaic sequences before
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and after a six-week fluency development workshop that included a focus on native
speaker models were analyzed. Results indicate a strong increase in speech fluency of
this learner after six weeks of focused instruction. It shows that the L2 learner were able
to borrow formulaic sequences from the workshop models, and fit them into her own
narrative quite effectively, and eventually stored them as her own repertoire.
Teaching implications
Formulaic sequences have great significance in accomplishing the production of
fluent language, which encourages researchers to explore ways to incorporating
formulaic sequences into classroom pedagogy. Repeated exposure to formulaic sequences
over time would encourage learners to achieve a certain level of comfort with natural
expression in English. Therefore, introducing classroom activity with special attention
paid to the formulaic sequences being used will facilitate the development of speech
fluency and achievement of particular pragmatic goals.
Various researches introduce formulaic sequences into language teaching in both
principled way and practical way. In Wray (2000), three attempts to introduce formulaic
language into second language teaching were examined. The assumptions underlying the
three syllabuses: Willis (1990), Nattinger and DeCarrico (1992) and Lewis (1993) are
compared and evaluated. Willis (1990) discussed certain words figures and demonstrated
the most frequent usage of certain words. Nattinger and DeCarrico (1992) were interested
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in the interactional functions of common formulaic sequences and suggested to use
formulaic sequences in teaching conversation. Lewis (1993) emphasized the uses and
functions of formulaic sequences that can help learners build up a large vocabulary. This
article constitutes a valuable introduction and calls for further research to the potential
application of formulaic sequences to second-language pedagogy. The authors provide
useful suggestions for incorporating formulaic sequences into curriculum both in terms of
spoken discourse and written discourse.
In a research article be Wood (2002), he introduced two practical types of tasks that
would help to facilitate awareness of the role of formulaic sequences: shadowing and
dictogloss. Shadowing involves learners in close imitation of how fluent or native
speaker performs while listening to speech on tape. During shadowing, learners are
required to repeat the phrases until they have mastered them. For classroom teaching,
choosing texts rich in formulaic sequences of particular relevance to leaner needs for
shadowing is a good way for awareness raising and production in real-time speech.
Dictogloss is also an awareness-raising activity in which leaners listen to a short text with
pauses of several seconds between sentences or phrases. Afterwards, learners are required
to write down content words and then work in teams to reconstruct the entire text. This
activity offers learners a chance to focus on how formulaic sequences are chunked and fit
into the flow of discourse in real speech.
Whereas, it seems difficult for L2 learners to have the sensitivity and automation of
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using formulaic sequences in real-life experience by simply expose to input in classroom.
In particular, dealing with the spoken language, interaction would seem to be key to
facilitating acquisition of formulaic sequences. Therefore, interactive tasks such as
small-group and pair activity are encouraged to enable learners to deliver more natural
utterances and accomplish communicative goals together. Interaction with native
speakers is another effective way to assist learners in gaining facility with formulaic
sequences. Native speakers can offer feedback to L2 learners in terms of the
appropriateness and effectiveness of their use of formulaic sequences in certain contexts,
which allows them to be aware of how formulas are pieced together in discourse.
Conclusion
Studies of speech fluency show that formulaic sequences paly an essential in
maintaining smoothness and speed of real-time speech. Learners can be exposed to
models of most idiomatic ways of using formulaic sequences, and move towards the
development of their L2 speech fluency in real-life situations. Given the significant role
of formulaic language in acquisition and production in L2, it is considerably vital to each
formulaic sequences and facilitate their acquisition more directly in the classroom.
There is still a long way to go to consolidate the evidence presented thus to use the
knowledge to further support classroom language pedagogy. More clear definition and
criteria as well as classification of what constitute formulaic sequences should be
discussed in further studies and research, especially formulaic sequences in L2 speech.
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Reference
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