2013
The changing representations
of femininity and masculinity
in visual culture, and the
factors which have influenced
them
This essay will highlight the growing changes within gender
representations and what has influenced these alterations.
Representations of gender in visual culture and the media help society to
establish what is normal behavior and attitudes. For example, masculine
images typically convey power, strength, and competitiveness whereas
feminine images show beauty, submissiveness, kindness and
cooperation. Such themes appear repeatedly in popular culture and are
often accepted by those who see them as natural aspects of the human
condition.
Casey Watts
DMJ Year 2
4/16/2013
Contents
1. Introduction
2. What is femininity and masculinity?
3. Femininity, masculinity and gender roles
4. Gender stereotyping in visual culture
5. Psychoanalytical- what influenced the painting?
6. Rosie the Riveter
7. Psychoanalytical-what influenced the poster?
8. How has these gender roles altered in our modern
society?
9. Conclusion
10. Bibliography
Discuss changing representations of femininity
and masculinity in visual culture, and the
factors which have influenced them
Representations of gender in visual culture provide powerful models of behaviour to
emulate or react against. Masculine images typically convey power, strength, and
competitiveness whereas feminine images show beauty, submissiveness, kindness and
cooperation. Such themes appear repeatedly in popular culture and are often accepted by
those who see them as natural aspects of the human condition. In tracing the background of
gender roles and stereotyping, this essay will investigate important issues relating to this
subject including the psychoanalytical factors that influence gender stereotyping, how
gender roles have altered in our modern society and using two examples this essay will
show prevalent gender stereotyping is in the media.
What is masculinity and femininity?
The term femininity refers to the ‘the quality or nature of the female sex’ (www.merriamwebster.com, 2013) and to be stereotyped as being feminine helps to further reinforce
gender roles in society. There is two ideologies associated with the notion of femininity,
they are ‘traditional femininity and resistant femininity’ (Williams, page 1, 2013.) For
example, the idealised female body in our modern society is ‘extremely thin and encodes
traditional femininity in that it represents social values of beauty and slimness but it also
encodes resistant femininity in that it represents determination, dedication, and strength’
(Williams, page 1, 2013.) Modern day femininity introduces a hybrid which integrates the
language of traditional femininity and resistant femininity with the intention of retaining
their traditional femininity while displaying highly valued but traditional male traits, for
example, leadership, power, strength and determination. Women have ‘evolved from the
biological, social and psychological demands made on them’ (Pedersen, page 3, 1993) and
have been able to redefine themselves and create a new awareness as women as
individuals.
However, masculine ideology differs from this viewpoint. Masculinity refers to the ‘the
quality’ (www.thefreedictionary.com, 2013) and to be defined as being masculine is
symbolic of power, strength and leadership which is often associated with the male sex.
Masculinity in the arts and in the media helps to reinforce the stereotypical view of the male
species and help society to define what it means to be male. ‘Representations of masculinity
and maleness in the media and the arts challenge and ultimately shape notions of the
masculinity.’ (Berger, page 2, 2012.) The notion of masculinity isn’t always associated with
men, being masculine in our modern society often refers to being strong, determined and
powerful and many other personality traits highly valued by the opposite sex. For example,
our society often values people in power and who are strong leaders and with the equal
rights movement women are capable of achieving the same power and leadership status as
a man. ‘Modern society encourages sexual equality, and that these are better supported by
a politics of equal rights than by encouraging men to personally reform their masculine
identity’ (MacInnes, page 3, 1998) With equal rights being available to both women and
men in our modern society, ‘there is a noisy minority who argues that feminism has gone
too far and that it is men who now have the worst deal in society (Gauntlett, page 3, 2008)
which evidently displays the power shift which has occurred between the two sexes over
recent years.
Femininity, masculinity and gender roles
The notion of gender roles is defined as ‘traditions, institutions, and established ways of
doing things according to your gender’ (Gauntlett, page 102, 2008) and is not something
which is not established at birth, but it founded through life experiences, instruction and
learning. The evolution of gender roles first began in the Palaeolithic Age when ‘women
would gather food from nearby wild plants and men would go out on hunts for meat’
(www.chacha.com.) The emergence of the Neolithic age changed the stereotypical gender
roles, with women in India, Greece, and Rome not being treated as equals, whereas cultures
like Egypt and Persia had similar laws for women and treated them with more respect. It is
arguable to state that the alterations in the treatment of women would have ‘decreased
tension between men and women, as well as increasing opportunities for equality in work,
relationships and family life’ (Pedersen, page 202, 2002.)
Throughout history it is widely acknowledged that there are roles attributed to each gender,
with the female sex commonly associated with being submissive and caring for the family;
whereas the male species is associated with being strong, dominant and the financial
provider for the family. The notion of gender roles has altered dramatically over the years,
‘with women making great strides to prove they are as smart and capable as men’ (Frith,
page 1, 2012) which has altered the traditional gender role attributed to women as many
women now are the main wage earners in the home and many men stay at home to care for
the family. Furthermore, another alteration to traditional gender roles in our western
society is the caring for the children and household, with ‘73% of employees stating working
mothers can have as good a relationship with their children as stay-at-home moms’
(http://workingmoms.about.com) and with ‘56 percent of men stating they do at least half
the cooking and cleaning’ (http://workingmoms.about.com) the power shift has changed in
families which has allowed women to taken on job roles with more responsibility and to
spend more time away from their home.
The society in which we live contributes to the shaping of behaviours and attitudes towards
all its inhabitants and it affects us as a collective group in many ways including education,
social interaction, visual communication, and spirituality. For example, ‘studies by Equal
Opportunities Commission have shown that they still tend to be pushed by their teachers
towards the five C’s- cleaning, catering, cashiering and clerical’ (Gauntlett, page 6, 2008)
which displays the effect gender roles has in terms of the expectations placed on a distinct
gender category of our society. Parents, teachers, friends, the media, music, books, and
religion help to teach and reinforce gender roles throughout our lifespan and its affects
determine how we view ourselves and ‘how women are being represented’ (Gauntlett,
page 73, 2008.) Gender roles can have a positive and negative effect on our society, and
these effects can vary due to culture and environmental factors. Positive effects can include
encouraging: ‘males to perform well academically and professionally, Success, Power and
Competition’ (curiosity.discovery.com, 2011.) However there are negative influences of
gender roles, they are: ‘encourages bullying and victimization, resistance to display
emotional expression, creates conflict between work and family Relations, creates negative
self-image’ (curiosity.discovery.com, 2011.)
Gender stereotyping in visual culture
By using two examples of differing visual culture, this essay will highlight how gender roles
are displayed throughout the ages. The Madonna by Norwegian expressionist artist Edvard
Munch was painted in 1894. The Madonna was also called "Loving Woman" which signifies
“religious and erotic content” (Edvard Munch.com) The subject’s reinforces the ideals of
gender roles as her appearance is very feminine and beautiful, all traits which are highly
valued by the female sex.
Figure 1. Madonna, (1894), Edvard Munch, oil painting
Munch states the Madonna “embodies all the beauty of the world. Your lips, as crimson as a
ripe fruit, are half open as if to express pain” (Munch.com.) Much objectifies the subject in
accordance to her beauty and youth as is the tradition of gender role stereotyping.
This viewpoint is evident in Munch’s interpretation with his theory serving as justification to
deem women solely as being beautiful and sexual. It is arguable that Munch’s mother’s early
death left the artist with a distorted view that women are only valued for their beauty and
youth, and that all women should uphold these ideals, which expresses itself in his
stereotyped paintings such as the Madonna.
Munch is reinforcing the sexism and stereotyping inherent in art history by judging the
protagonist in a sexual and objectifying manner. Gilboa states ‘gender stereotyping in art
are the outcome of the cultural process of defining sexual and social identity’ (Gilboa, 2005,
page 876) This is created by exaggerating the Madonna’s sexuality through the use of her
semi-naked body and inviting pose and the red halo placed on her head, which marries the
attribute of sainthood and kindness to the material form. With these elements the
protagonist becomes a parody of female sexuality and herself.
Psychoanalytical- what influenced the painting?
Whilst analysing the painting from a gender viewpoint, it is inevitable that a
psychoanalytical perception will be needed to understand why Munch views women in an
idealistic way. During the production of the Madonna and his other ‘Freize of life’ paintings
‘Munch suffered a nervous breakdown’ (Hodin, 1972, page 55) The Freize of life is Munch’s
collective paintings which presents an image of the artists life and the love, sufferings and
psychological traumas which encompass it. The most potent painting of Munch’s theory
that ‘women are idealised for their beauty’ (Smith, 1992, page 22,) is the Madonna.
Edvard Munch’s mother died of tuberculosis when Munch was five years old, to which
Munch wrote ‘I learned early about the miseries and dangers of life’ (Hodin, 1972, page 11).
This inflicted his perspective of women being the givers of life, and ultimately the epitome
of beauty. This is evident in the floating transitional state of Madonna which encounters the
immediacy of the woman’s body, symbolising elusiveness and the power women have in
seducing men; Juxtaposing by Munch’s conflicting ideals that women give and destroy life.
Rosie the Riveter
Figure 2. Rosie the Riveter, (1943), J. Howard Miller, Poster.
Rosie the Riveter is an iconic poster created in 1943 by J. Howard Miller for Westinghouse;
the image represents the six million women who entered the workforce during World War
II, many of whom worked in job roles which were previously only ever carried out by men,
such as welding, machine work etc. The poster was ‘modelled on Michigan factory worker
Geraldine Doyle in 1942’ (www.singularitynyc.com, 2008) with the intention of encouraging
women to enter the workforce. The name ‘Rosie the Riveter’ signifies female empowerment
because Riveters was roles only previously carried out by men which juxtaposes traditional
gender roles. The subject who is depicted wearing overalls with her hair tied up in a polkadot cloth reinforces the ideals of modern gender roles and helps to eliminate the role of the
subservient stay at home housewife. The iconic image displays all the masculine traits
praised by men, including strength, power, dominance, and courage which evidently
displays the change of the traditional gender role that occurred during the 1940’s.
Miller is reinforcing the ideals of sexual equality and is displaying the power shift that
occurred during the 1940’s by portraying the protagonist in a masculine and powerful
manner. Latour states ‘Between 1940and 1944, the number of women working not only
doubled, but also the percentage of jobs acceptable for a woman increased from 29 to 85
percent’ (Latour, 2008, page 5) This is imagery is exaggerated by displaying the protagonist
in a strong, masculine and challenging pose, the overtly male pose marries the attribute of
masculinity and femininity to a material form. With these elements the protagonist
becomes a parody of male masculinity and herself.
Psychoanalytical- what influenced the poster?
Whilst analysing the poster from a gender role viewpoint, it is inevitable that a
psychoanalytical perception will be needed to understand why Miller views women in a
masculine way. During the production of the Rosie the Riveter, the ‘age marked the onset of
a crucial decade in the history of American womanhood’ and caused people to ‘to question
and re-evaluate depression-era stereotypes of subordinate and subservient femininity’
(Walsh, page 5, 1986.) World War II caused many American men to be called away from
home and their job roles, so women were urged to carry out job roles which were only
previously completed by men. It is arguable to state that during this era, it cause many
people to re-evaluate their gender role in the home and at work, and inspired many women
into professions outside of the home. Rosie the Riveter presents an image of gender
equality and the willing for gender stereotyping to end.
This era proved to be the catalyst for women’s rights, and was the turning point for the
equal rights movement. ‘The increasingly significant numbers of women in the war’
(German, page 1, 2013) helped the country win World War II and there contribution was
highly valued by the public and caused many organisations ‘to remind the public of the ongoing inequalities in the treatment of men and women and to urge for the petition of the
Equal Pay Act’ (www.nationalarchives.gov.uk.) This influences Millers perspective of women
being strong, and being equally capable of carrying out roles which were only previously
completed by men. This is evident in the masculine and dominant pose of Rosie the Riveter
which encounters the strength and power of the female body, symbolises masculinity and
the power women, mentally and physically have; Displaying Millers ideals that women are
equal to men in all ways.
How has these gender roles altered in our modern society?
Over the course of the of the last three decades, the women’s rights movement and the
petition for equality between the sexes has seen a crucial progression within the social,
economical and education needs of women. ‘There increasing success in separating from
inflexible societal sex roles and redefining themselves has created the beginnings of a new
awareness of women as individuals’ (Perdersen, page 1, 2002) which has helped to alter
gender roles and has helped to define a more complex view of the female sex. Modern
gender roles differ from traditional gender ideals, some of these differences include: 1.
‘Both parents work to earn money or even just the mother works and the father stays at
home with the children.’ 2. ‘Parliament is now comprised of both males and females.’ 3.
‘Women are just as or more educated than men.’ 4. ‘Women are now allowed in the army,
navy and the air force.’ 5. ‘Anyone of legal age can now vote.’ (www.enotes.com, 2012.) It is
arguable to state that the introduction of women’s rights has altered the gender roles of
both sexes in society and it has become acceptable for men to perform duties previously
performed by women, such as cleaning, and for women to work in job roles that was solely
carried out by men in the past.
The transformation from traditional gender roles to current society were the barriers and
restrictions of gender roles are no longer present has allowed our society to develop new
behaviours and thinking in regards to what is expected of us as individuals. This change has
not only altered our society but has affected us as individuals. ‘Our identity is associated
with our gender – something which can be changed at will’ (Charles, page 11, 2002) and
change to traditional gender roles ultimately affects the way we view ourselves and helps to
shape our identity. It is arguable to state that gender roles are a crucial aspect of our lives
and by being stereotyped in this way, it can help to shape how we view the world and what
we think is normal and unusual.
Conclusion
To conclude, gender representations in the media and in popular culture help to shape our
sense of identity and how we should think, act and behave. Gender roles have proved to be
a valuable tool for female oppression and it was only with the emergence of World War II
that women were being treated as equals. With the creation of the women’s rights
movement, the restrictions of gender stereotyping was eliminated, which subsequently
affected both genders and gave both sex the opportunity to carry out roles only previously
ever carried out by the other sex. This has impacted society, as there is now more women
working and more men have decided to become stay at home fathers while the wife is the
main wage earner of the family. After conducting my research I believe gender roles will
continue to alter until our gender does not define our identity and all children are born into
a society where its inhabitants are able to behave, think and speak in any manner which is
not limited to their gender. Charles states that ‘girls were educated to become wives and
mothers’ and that boys were educated ‘to become a husband and father and to work full
time in a man’s job’ (Charles, page 87, 2002) but I believe in the future of gender roles will
be more diverse and will offer both sexes the freedom to have a complex and diverse
identity, one which is comprised of both highly praised female and male traits, creating new
and equal gender roles.
Word Count: 2, 839
Bibliography
Books
MacInnes, J (1998) The end of masculinity: the confusion of sexual genesis and sexual
difference in modern society, Open University Press.
Berger, M (2012) Constructing Masculinity illustrated edition, Routledge Ltd.
Williams, T (2013) Empowered Femininity: The Textual Construction of Femininity in
Women’s Fitness Magazines, Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Latour, J (2008) Sisters in the brotherhood, Palgrave Macmillan Ltd, London.
Walsh, A (1986) Women's film and female experience, 1940-1950, Praeger Publishers,
London.
Gauntlett, D (2002) Media, gender and Identity, Rouledge, New York.
Thurer, S (2005) The end of gender, Routledge, New York.
Charles, N (2002) Gender in modern Britain, Oxford University Press, New York.
Pedersen, L (2002) Sixteen men: Understanding masculine personality types, Shambhala
Publications, Lincoln.
Gilboa, A (2005) Gender in Art, Charles Scribners sons, Detriot.
Hodin, J.P.H (1992) Edvard Munch, 6th, Thames and Hudson Ltd, London.
Smith, J.B.S (1992) Munch, 4th, Phaidon Press Limited, London.
German, L (2013) How a Century of War Changed the Lives of Women, Pluto Press, London.
Journals
Frith, L (2012) Equality and gender roles, Volume 221, Independence Publishers, Cambridge.
Websites
Edvard Munch (no date) Madonna [Internet] Available from http://www.edvardmunch.com/gallery/women/madonna.htm [accessed 5th April 2013]
ENotes (2012) 10 differences between traditional and modern gender roles? [online] Available at:
http://www.enotes.com/homework-help/tabulate-10-differences-between-traditional-modern351538 [accessed 3rd April 2013]
National Archives (no date) Women's rights [online] Available at:
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/citizenship/brave_new_world/women.htm
[accessed 3rd April 2013]
The Free Dictionary (no date) Masculinity [online] Available at:
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/masculinity [accessed 2nd April 2013]
Singularity (2008) We can do it [online] Available at: http://www.singularitynyc.com/Rosieinformation.html [accessed 2nd April 2013]
Curiosity (2012) How are men and women's roles in society changing? [online] Available at:
http://curiosity.discover [accessed 2nd April 2013]
Laboratory Equipment (2012) Neolithic People Didn’t Have Defined Gender Roles [online] Available
at: http://www.laboratoryequipment.com/news/2012/08/neolithic-people-didn%E2%80%99thave-defined-gender-rolesy.com/question/gender-roles-society-changing [accessed 2nd April 2013]
Cliff Notes (no date) Gender roles [online] Available at:
http://www.cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/Gender-Roles.topicArticleId-26957,articleId-26895.html
[accessed 1st April 2013]
Cha Cha (2012) How did gender roles change from the Paleolithic and Neolithic ages through the rise
of the first sedentary civilizations? [online] Available at: http://www.chacha.com/question/how-didgender-roles-change-from-the-paleolithic-and-neolithic-ages-through-the-rise-of-the-firstsedentary-civilizations [accessed 1st April 2013]
Marriam Webster (no date) Femininity [online] Available at: http://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/femininity [accessed 1st April 2013]
Ehow (no date) The Pros & Cons of Gender Roles [online] Available at:
http://www.ehow.com/info_8463711_pros-cons-gender-roles.html [accessed 2nd April
2013]
About (No date) Gender Roles Change at Work and Home [online] Available at:
http://workingmoms.about.com/od/workingmomsresearch/a/GenderRoles.htm
[accessed 2nd April 2013]