Running Head: REMEDIATION OF ENGLISH
Remediation of English: A Question of Basic Literacy
An Annotated Bibliography
Deborah Davis
Liberty University
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REMEDIATION OF ENGLISH
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Abstract
College readiness, remedial coursework, English achievement, writing at the graduate level, all
these are issues of concern for the students at today’s universities. Depending on the research
about half the students who enter college this year will require a remedial course, particularly in
English. Whether it is financially responsible to the community or better handled via a summer
program or dual enrollment opportunity are all questions that the research tries to answer.
Regardless of those answers, one thing is consistent, the student will succeed better if treated as
an individual whose personal gaps are addressed and whose education is tailored to specific
learning needs.
Keywords: college access, postsecondary education, remediation, writing instruction
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Remediation of English: A Question of Basic Literacy
An Annotated Bibliography
Realizing Readiness
There is much disagreement over what it means to be college ready, according to an
article presented by Creech and Clouse (2013). Reviewing disparate definitions, they determine
that one of the problems in analyzing the readiness or need for remediation for students is that
each state, each University system, each college, seems to have its own definition. The article
also suggests that the “common core” system, while a likely achievement toward lessening the
concerns of remediation at the college level, has its own issues of concern. One of the target
issues is that while successful partnerships between secondary and post-secondary institutions
lead to success for students, the aims of the institutions often have their own disparities. English
Transition Courses (ETC) are used during the senior year of high school, after most of the
achievement goals of the secondary school have been met, to rigorously prepare the collegebound students for college-level work. The goal, to have at least half the student college ready
after the course, was met and substantially exceeded. This showed the program to be a viable and
feasible means of readying the student through collaboration between secondary and postsecondary faculty.
Mind the GAP
The University of the District of Columbia is reviewed as a program of excellence in
remediation for both English and math in an article by Stuart (2009, p. 14). In the article, the
point is well taken that student areas of weakness must be targeted to enable those students to
succeed. During the construction and use of the Gateway Academic Program (GAP) at that
school, it is noted that individual students are targeted for improvement based on the individual
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areas of weakness. The GAP program students are pulled from the lowest scoring students, but
they become some of the most successful. The author presents that the goal is student success, as
opposed to the historical selection process of Freshman College coursework. Further, it is
important the students see the value in the coursework and not just a continuation of their
secondary work. The remediation is identified as intervention for these students. A variety of
other schools with similar programs are cited in an aid to identifying working techniques for
positive results.
High School to College Writing
While standardized assessments seem to provide for more writing opportunities, the need
to prepare for them has limited the focus of writing instruction and thus, per Fanetti, Bushrow,
and DeWeese (2010), the ability of the student to write at the college level has been
compromised. To that end, these authors have presented a qualitative analysis composed from
extensive interviews with middle and high school English teachers and college English teachers
of all levels. As the evaluation of requirements is analyzed in concert with the anticipation of
greater numbers of college students and, hopefully, graduates, it is noted that high school is
college preparatory school for most students. However, it is also noted that high school writing is
not preparatory for college level writing skills, but for writing high school achievement tests. The
teachers and professors were loath to point fingers at one another, instead, presenting a balance
of concerns of all working within a variety of constraints.
Better Work from Better Work
That students perform better when better prepared would seem to be obvious. Still, none
can be sure what each student needs to be better prepared and thus perform better. Tierney and
Garcia (2011) bring forth the argument that while the number of remedial courses is rising, there
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have been no solutions as to why this is so, or why this should be, or if this trend will continue.
California is highlighted as a state where students prepare for college entrance exams throughout
the senior year of high school. The use of summer programs to enhance the capabilities of
students requiring remedial is evaluated with great success for those students who will
participate. The complex issues of remediation are evaluated within this article however, no
solutions are proffered.
SES and SSS
Socio-Economic Status (SES) and Student Self Selection (SSS) of dual enrollment
programs can help level the field for students whose program participation would otherwise be
under-realized. In this study, An (2011) finds that students from lower SES who provide their
own SSS or courses are more successful at the college level. However, to do so, appropriate
individual guidance is key in aiding the SSS process. Unfortunately, many lower SES students
are not qualified for the dual enrollment program. An emphasis on the ability and benefits of the
program to those students and their families is lacking in the years prior to eligibility. Parents
who had not completed college were found to have a greater influence on SSS and on the
achievement patterns of those students. Perhaps more importantly, those who did participate in
the dual enrollment program were far less likely to require the remedial coursework that would
have cost them and their families college dollars that could now be spent in progress toward
degree completion.
ACT says Act Now
The American College Testing (ACT) program has analyzed a vast compilation of
student test scores and compared them with graduation rates to predict success at college level
coursework. McGlynn (2013) reports that while science and math scores have improved through
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the last generation the skills for college success have not made equal improvements, particularly
reporting lower scores in English and reading. ACT suggests that students be evaluated early and
often through high school years for college readiness. Models for growth and achievement
should be profiled to the school systems and training of administrators will aid in appropriate use
to identify gaps. Perhaps most importantly, schools need to share what works, helping other
students succeed using their best solutions.
Course and Completion
Whether or not students start in remedial coursework and complete that coursework and
their degree program is the subject of Bahr’s (2012) work on community colleges. The particular
focus is on the college competency attained, or not attained, from the work within the remedial
courses. Those students with lower skills at the onset require more time and more effort on their
behalf as well as the behalf of the college to reach the same level as those beginning with higher
skills at the onset of the coursework. While this might seem intuitive, the remedial coursework is
intended to be an equalizer of sorts for these varying skill levels. On suggested issue of concern
is that attrition rates for students with lower skill levels are higher than other students because of
the multitude of factors that place them into the courses and the additional courses they are
expected to take. An accelerated pace for remedial coursework will allow students with higher
skill levels to work through the opportunities, but those with lower skill levels may find the
accelerated course continues to leave them behind. In their frustration, they abandon the attempt
and leave the remediation program. Thus, to keep students engaged in the program requires
specific attention to the individual needs of the students vice categorical grouping.
Surface Level Errors
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Ali (2011) explains that the detailed correction of surface level errors (the basic
mechanics of grammar and punctuation) can be a hindrance to the learning process of the
University student. He presents that a scant overview of such is sufficient to highlight the errors,
while a detailed review is distracting and disheartening to the student. The teachers consulted,
however, found great importance in detailing the errors for the students. These same teachers
also acknowledged that many students do not review the errors and will submit the same errors
repetitively. Students and teachers concur that a consultative review of the writing was more
effective than simply written feedback. Also, both students and teachers felt feedback was more
effective when error marking was discussed at the beginning of the course and that the student’s
views on correction should be considered when forming a methodology for such.
Costing the Community
The costs of remedial education and the benefit to the students and the community are
weighed in an article by Martinez and Bain (2013). One critical factor analyzed is the
requirement for extended time at an institute of higher education, a factor not often considered
when analyzing the costs. The authors point out that the burden on community colleges also is
out-of-balance compared to the numbers of students in these colleges vice traditional four-year
universities. The article also indicates that an increasing need provides and increasing burden,
but does not address methods for ameliorating the need in a pre-secondary environment. The
need for a social policy extending a K-16 or even K-20 program is presented as a critical factor
in funding the programs needed by an increasingly unprepared college population. The bottom
line is that the cost borne by the society of failing to prepare these students is more than
repudiated by the benefit of increasing the ability of these students to succeed.
Increased Information, Increased Participation
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Providing information about college readiness seems key in preparing students to
participate at the college level as explained in an article by Tierney and Garcia (2010), but the
same article shows that information is not enough. Students need varied writing assignments
with plenty of constructive feedback to learn to write at the college level. However, many
secondary schools simply do not provide substantial skills to students in this area. The article
reviewed high school student opinions via focus groups and surveys to find how little these
students knew about their own academic preparedness or lack thereof. The feedback from testing
did not mean anything to these students, nor were they, by and large, aware that there would be a
consequence to remedial education – paying for courses with no credit toward graduation, and
extending the college program to compensate for remediation course-time. While an increase in
information might encourage these student to increase preparation and thus reduce remediation,
there is a shortfall of information regarding the options, understanding, and possibilities for those
students.
Long-Distance Learning and Learning Activities
While most texts indicate a necessity for individualized instruction, preferably one-onone with instructors, the article by Lai and Chen (2010) presents the construct that such remedial
instruction can be computerized, particularly for distance learners. The computers can analyze
the needs of the student for specific remedial learning activities, and craft those activities gears to
that student. What is normally a time-intensive and somewhat subjective analysis becomes
objective and provides faster results for students and teachers. This particular article is geared for
students in the science and technology fields. However, it is a transparent overlay to see this
same methodology put to work in the math and English areas. An important aspect to consider
with this technology is the capability of the distance learning student to handle the technology.
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The sub-systems of the technology are extremely complex on the back end so as to be
transparent on the student end. The multi-media format is design to enhance the learner’s
experience during the assessment as well as the remedial learning portion of the program.
Skip the Remedial and Pass Just the Same
In Virginia Community Colleges, entry requirements may be waived or exempted, and
many students simply do not take the remedial course into which they were placed according to
Gilroy (2010). Gatekeeper courses (generally freshman level English and math) are simply not
taken until later in college, by which time the skills to pass have been gained through other
coursework. In a Florida study, those who took and passed the remedial coursework continued
with the University level work, but then frequently failed to complete their degree program. The
broad-based programs inherent in community colleges seem to be a repetition of high school
work at a faster pace. The students’ individual needs are not evaluated nor met in those
situations.
Teaching Quality for the College Bound
In a system that is both diverse and complex, a long series of student testing and educator
analyses have given substantial data to correlate teaching quality as it affects the remediation
requirements of the college bound student. Howell (2011) evaluates students headed to
California State University (CSU) campuses from California public schools. The surprising
result of the analysis was that English teachers with master’s degrees who have completed more
work had more students in remedial English courses at the University than math teachers with
the same standards. It is, however, a precarious alignment. The evidence also shows that the
teacher’s level of credentials, the demands placed upon the student, and the students SocioEconomic Status (SES) have a bigger impact that the teacher’s own education level. The
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emergency teacher credentialing process has placed more teachers with these limited credentials
into schools with higher teacher turnover and lower SES. This seems to be a more predictive
element than any other single factor on the number of students requiring remediation. The more
credentialed and experienced teachers lead far fewer students into remedial math or English
courses.
California Early Assessment and Reduced Remediation
An analysis of the California State University (CSU) Early Assessment Program (EAP)
and how it works for students who would otherwise go through remedial education at the
University level is presented by Howell, Kurlander, and Grodsky (2010). The EAP is completely
voluntary, and the student population evaluated in the article consists only of those who
completed the EAP. It is important to note that math participants had to have completed Algebra
II prior to testing, while there was no standard for English participants. Resultantly, those math
students participating were found to have less need for remediation than the English students.
Also, the English program had a single dividing point – accepted or requires remediation, where
the math program had a central area that allowed for completion of math courses at a specific
grade point level for exemption from remediation. These elements allowed for an unequal
distribution of student analysis. The idea that EAP sorts students into those who may or may not
even apply to the CSU system is also evaluated. Since this study only evaluated participating
students, the need for remediation among non-participating students is not addressed. The study
does show that EAP participants who choose to attend a CSU campus have a considerably higher
percentage of graduates, indicating that EAP helps students succeed.
Predicting the Post-Secondary Promise?
In a study conducted at Ontario College of Toronto, Peng, Le, and Milburn (2011) found
there was a correlation between placement testing and post-secondary success, but that the
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testing needs to be reviewed carefully or the negative stigma of remediation will affect the
ultimate outcome. While this testing was directed at math sub-scores, the analysis can be applied
across the curriculum. In this study, the results evaluated only those who completed the degree
program. The most important factor was that the test scores became better predictors as they
were isolated to better achievers. So, those who scored well on the test had higher scores (Grade
Point Averages) at the end of their schooling. The evaluation showed a weaker correlation for the
lesser scoring students, but eliminated those who dropped or were dropped from the program.
While the ability to predict post-secondary success can be evaluated within the promise of entrylevel test scores, other variables of interest should be included to determine the potential success
of each student.
Developing Dyslexic Students
A detailed study of methods to improve the reading stills of students with dyslexia
provides insight into remedial teaching methods for those with learning disabilities and readying
students for higher level work. Jumani, Rahman, Dilpazir, Chishti, Chaudry, and Malik (2011)
indicate that whether the method is visual, auditory, or kinesthetic, the important element is to
match the method to the needs of the student. Drilling and one-on-one contact were shown as the
most effective means of developing student abilities. The incorporation of family dynamics also
played into the study as more than half those involved had a family history of dyslexia. Attention
problems were found, not unexpectedly, to have a huge correlation to the dyslexic issues.
However, the need for teachers to aid in identifying the needs of the student and early
intervention were found to be key in developing the students reading and writing skills.
Intervention in British Writing
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In a writing intervention within a University in Great Britain, Wingate, Andon, and Cogo
(2011) found a singularly unique experience: students were not otherwise being taught the
expectations of writing at the University level. Presented in a series of ten modules, the writing
intervention allowed unprepared students to gain skills needed to perform successfully at
University. Those students, who chose not to participate, did not succeed either at the
intervention or at University. Those who embraced the opportunity presented by the intervention
felt they had improved significantly, and regardless of their ranking in the intervention made
considerable progress at University. This article also presents a need for such an intervention at
the post-graduate level pointing out that Master’s degrees are sometimes in varying fields with
varying writing requirements than undergraduate degrees.
Remedial Post-Graduates?
Micciche (2011) presents herself as an example of a graduate student, in her own doctoral
program, unready to write at the expected level of a graduate student. Graduate level writing
goes beyond the basic essay expected at the early collegiate level, yet, is seldom taught at the
undergraduate level. Consequently, like Micciche, students enter graduate school thinking they
know how to write well enough, only to find themselves at a loss. Advancing new knowledge
based on the critical inquiry of prior knowledge is a skill, and one that can be taught, and needs
to be taught to all students presuming themselves ready for the graduate school world. The
author presents the whys and wherefores that lead to a workshop in graduate writing. Then, the
workshop itself is outlined in detail, providing a guide should such a workshop be envisioned
elsewhere.
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