1
SUPPLEMENTARY TABLES
2
Contents:
3
Table S1: Vocal characters used in this study and their descriptions.
4
Table S2: Transformations that were performed to raw data prior to performing phylogenetic principal components analysis.
5
Table S3: Plumage characters used in this study and their descriptions.
6
Table S4: Outlier taxa with studentized residuals ≥ 3 that were removed from PGLS analyses.
7
Table S5: Results from PGLS analyses of nine comparisons of song and plumage complexity from 301 species of tanagers integrated
8
over 50 randomly sampled trees from a post burn-in posterior distribution of BEAST trees.
9
Table S6: Results from PGLS analyses of nine comparisons of song and plumage complexity including carotenoid as an interaction
10
effect from 301 species of tanagers integrated over 50 randomly sampled trees from a post burn-in posterior distribution of BEAST
11
trees.
12
Table S7: Results from PGLS analyses of nine comparisons of song and plumage complexity including structural coloration as an
13
interaction effect from 301 species of tanagers integrated over 50 randomly sampled trees from a post burn-in posterior distribution of
14
BEAST trees.
15
Table S8: Results from PGLS analyses of nine comparisons of song and plumage complexity including habitat type as an interaction
16
effect from 301 species of tanagers integrated over 50 randomly sampled trees from a post burn-in posterior distribution of BEAST
17
trees.
18
19
Supplementary Table S1: Vocal characters used in this study and their descriptions.
Character
Description
Song length
Time from beginning to end of song
Note percentage
Summed note duration divided by song length
Summed duration of all instances of polyphony divided by song
Polyphony percentage
length
Longest note
Duration of longest note in song
Average note length
Summed note duration divided by the number of notes in a song
Longest pause
Duration of longest pause in song
Summed pause duration divided by the number of pauses in a
Average pause length
song
Low frequency
Minimum fundamental frequency occurring in a song
High frequency
Maximum fundamental frequency occurring in a song
Fundamental frequency with the highest amplitude in the entire
Peak frequency
song
Average note bandwidth
The average frequency range of notes within a song
Difference between the maximum and minimum fundamental
Song bandwidth
frequencies in a song
Time of maximum fundamental frequency minus time of
Frequency slope
minimum fundamental frequency divided by song duration
Time of maximum amplitude minus time of minimum amplitude
Amplitude slope
divided by song duration
Number of frequency sweeps that span 1 kHz in 20 msec divided
Frequency shift rate
by the song duration
Maximum frequency shift
Greatest change in frequency within a 20 msec time window
Note count
Number of notes in a song
Note rate
Number of notes in a song divided by the song duration
Number of notes per second in a trill. A minimum of five
Trill rate
repeated notes within a second duration defined a trill
Note types
Number of different note types in a song
20
21
22
Supplementary Table S2: Transformations that were performed to raw data prior to performing phylogenetic principal components
analysis. Abbreviations are as follows: raw – no transformation applied; sqrt – square root transformation; log – natural log
transformation.
Song Character
Song length
Note percentage
Polyphony percentage
Longest note
Average note
Longest pause
Average pause
Low frequency
High frequency
Peak frequency
Average note frequency range
Song frequency range
Frequency slope
Amplitude slope
Frequency shift rate
Maximum frequency shift
Note count
Note rate
Note types
23
Transformation
sqrt
raw
log
log
log
sqrt
log
raw
raw
raw
sqrt
raw
sqrt
sqrt
raw
raw
raw
raw
raw
Color Character
Average color span
Variance color span
Maximum color span
Color volume
Average hue disparity
Variance hue disparity
Maximum hue disparity
Brilliance
Average chroma
Transformation
log
log
raw
log
log
log
log
raw
raw
24
25
Supplementary Table S3: Plumage characters used in this study and their descriptions.
Character
Description
Average Euclidian distance among all plumage patches in avian
Average colour span
colour space
Maximum Euclidian distance among all plumage patches in avian
Maximum colour span
colour space
Variance among Euclidian distances for all plumage patches in
Colour span variance
avian colour space
Average angle between all pairs of vectors that span from the
Average hue disparity
center of colour space to each plumage patch
Maximum angle between any two vectors that span from the
Maximum hue disparity
center of colour space to a given plumage patch
Variance among angles between all pairs of vectors that span
Hue disparity variance
from the center of colour space to each plumage patch
The volume for the minimum convex polygon that contains all
Colour volume
plumage patches
Brilliance
Average reflectance per wavelength
Average chroma
Average length of plumage patch vectors
26
27
Supplementary Table S4: Outlier taxa with studentized residuals ≥ 3 that were removed from PGLS analyses.
Song
Song PC1
Song PC1
Song PC1
Song length
Song length
Color
Color PC1
Color volume
Brilliance
Color PC1
Color volume
Song length
Note types
Note types
Note types
Brilliance
Color PC1
Color volume
Brilliance
Outlier Taxa
Sporophila leucoptera, Camarhynchus heliobates
Sporophila leucoptera
Sporophila leucoptera
Cyanerpes caeruleus, Ramphocelus bresilius, Hemispingus rufosuperciliaris
Cyanerpes caeruleus, Ramphocelus bresilius, Hemispingus rufosuperciliaris
Cyanerpes caeruleus, Poospiza melanoleuca, Ramphocelus bresilius, Hemispingus
rufosuperciliaris
Camarhynchus heliobates
None
None
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
Supplementary Table S5: Results from PGLS analyses of nine comparisons of song and plumage complexity from 301 species of
tanagers integrated over 50 randomly sampled trees from a post burn-in posterior distribution of BEAST trees. The best-fit PGLS
model is shown first and any competing models (ΔAICC ≤ 2) are shown afterwards. Values of Pagel’s λ were averaged and standard
errors were calculated across the posterior distribution of trees and are shown only when the corresponding model of evolution is the
best fit. For models where major clade is included, Tangarinae is used as the comparison group. Interaction effects are denoted with
the presence of a colon separating the two interacting terms. The effect size (β) and its standard error (SE) are also displayed as values
that have been averaged over tress from the posterior distribution. The uncorrected P value and the adjusted P value to adjust the false
discovery rate (n = 9) are also shown. An asterisk indicates if either the P value or adjusted P value is ≤ 0.05.
Song
character
Colour
character
Model
ΔAICC
λ ± SE
Effect
β ± SE
P
Adjusted
P
song PC1
colour PC1
subfamliy
0.00
0.722 ± 0.002
colour PC1
-0.154 ± 0.798
0.847
1.000
Coerebinae
7.872 ± 11.192
0.482
1.000
Dacninae
37.57 ± 14.198
0.009*
0.081
Diglossinae
7.828 ± 8.717
0.370
1.000
Hemithraupinae
7.652 ± 16.782
0.649
1.000
Nemosinae
7.056 ± 15.706
0.654
1.000
Orchesticinae
6.644 ± 13.586
0.625
1.000
Poospizinae
2.198 ± 10.158
0.829
1.000
Porphyrospizinae
-14.891 ± 11.355
0.191
1.000
Saltatorinae & Emberizoidinae
-2.806 ± 9.814
0.775
1.000
Sporophilinae
-4.936 ± 12.551
0.695
1.000
Tachyphoninae
0.262 ± 8.799
0.966
1.000
colour PC1:Coerebinae
0.134 ± 1.427
0.924
1.000
colour PC1:Dacninae
-11.512 ± 4.296
0.008*
0.072
song PC1
ln(colour
volume)
subfamily
0.00
0.726 ± 0.002
colour PC1:Diglossinae
0.653 ± 1.102
0.555
1.000
colour PC1:Hemithraupinae
0.563 ± 6.286
0.929
1.000
colour PC1:Nemosinae
-5.463 ± 4.464
0.222
1.000
colour PC1:Orchesticinae
6.768 ± 6.004
0.260
1.000
colour PC1:Poospizinae
-0.869 ± 1.487
0.560
1.000
colour PC1:Porphyrospizinae
-3.081 ± 2.281
0.178
1.000
colour PC1:Saltatorinae &
Emberizoidinae
2.119 ± 1.916
0.271
1.000
colour PC1:Sporophilinae
-1.093 ± 1.389
0.433
1.000
colour PC1:Tachyphoninae
-1.072 ± 1.317
0.417
1.000
-0.76 ± 0.98
0.440
1.000
Coerebinae
43.142 ± 25.072
0.087
0.783
Dacninae
-75.319 ± 45.664
0.101
0.909
Diglossinae
18.843 ± 17.878
0.294
1.000
Hemithraupinae
36.923 ± 59.211
0.533
1.000
Nemosinae
-54.354 ± 55.776
0.331
1.000
Orchesticinae
185.405 ± 156.578
0.237
1.000
Poospizinae
4.617 ± 23.222
0.843
1.000
Porphyrospizinae
-41.039 ± 44.403
0.357
1.000
Saltatorinae & Emberizoidinae
20.484 ± 26.565
0.442
1.000
Sporophilinae
3.351 ± 26.018
0.898
1.000
ln(colour volume)
song PC1
brilliance
subfamily
0.00
0.721 ± 0.002
Tachyphoninae
-6.63 ± 16.989
0.697
1.000
ln(colour volume):Coerebinae
3.183 ± 2.039
0.121
1.000
ln(colour volume):Dacninae
-9.042 ± 4.608
0.051
0.459
ln(colour volume):Diglossinae
1.148 ± 1.476
0.438
1.000
ln(colour volume):Hemithraupinae
3.209 ± 6.699
0.632
1.000
ln(colour volume):Nemosinae
-4.832 ± 5.539
0.384
1.000
ln(colour volume):Orchesticinae
18.947 ± 16.533
0.252
1.000
ln(colour volume):Poospizinae
0.179 ± 1.882
0.924
1.000
ln(colour
volume):Porphyrospizinae
-2.43 ± 3.617
0.503
1.000
ln(colour volume):Saltatorinae &
Emberizoidinae
2.44 ± 2.336
0.298
1.000
ln(colour volume):Sporophilinae
0.537 ± 1.9
0.778
1.000
ln(colour volume):Tachyphoninae
-0.499 ± 1.436
0.728
1.000
brilliance
-34.07 ± 32.577
0.297
1.000
Coerebinae
-7.228 ± 13.463
0.592
1.000
Dacninae
12.977 ± 23.471
0.581
1.000
Diglossinae
-1.647 ± 11.789
0.889
1.000
Hemithraupinae
12.795 ± 22.913
0.577
1.000
Nemosinae
-37.513 ± 21.503
0.083
0.747
Orchesticinae
-121.025 ± 111.947
0.280
1.000
Poospizinae
8.027 ± 13.097
0.541
1.000
ln(song length)
ln(song length)
colour PC1
ln(colour
volume)
Porphyrospizinae
-15.628 ± 19.175
0.416
1.000
Saltatorinae & Emberizoidinae
-16.037 ± 15.482
0.302
1.000
Sporophilinae
-1.337 ± 14.861
0.928
1.000
Tachyphoninae
1.03 ± 12.86
0.933
1.000
brilliance:Coerebinae
118.334 ± 56.138
0.037*
0.333
brilliance:Dacninae
8.984 ± 86.757
0.917
1.000
brilliance:Diglossinae
55.286 ± 50.805
0.278
1.000
brilliance:Hemithraupinae
-28.55 ± 128.631
0.825
1.000
brilliance:Nemosinae
189.095 ± 108.351
0.082
0.738
brilliance:Orchesticinae
856.484 ± 748.013
0.253
1.000
brilliance:Poospizinae
-20.537 ± 52.232
0.695
1.000
brilliance:Porphyrospizinae
38.42 ± 114.835
0.738
1.000
brilliance:Saltatorinae &
Emberizoidinae
63.862 ± 68.137
0.350
1.000
brilliance:Sporophilinae
3.09 ± 53.014
0.950
1.000
brilliance:Tachyphoninae
-10.327 ± 63.564
0.871
1.000
base
0.00
0.606 ± 0.002
colour PC1
0.035 ± 0.024
0.146
1.000
carotenoid
1.77
0.613 ± 0.001
colour PC1
0.046 ± 0.025
0.063
0.567
carotenoid
-0.207 ± 0.131
0.114
1.000
0.021 ± 0.03
0.494
1.000
0.043 ± 0.034
0.201
1.000
base
0.00
carotenoid
1.85
0.612 ± 0.002
0.621 ± 0.001
ln(colour volume)
ln(colour volume)
ln(song length)
brilliance
subfamily
0.00
0.657 ± 0.002
carotenoid
-0.212 ± 0.139
0.128
1.000
brilliance
0.893 ± 2.144
0.678
1.000
Coerebinae
0.207 ± 0.856
0.809
1.000
Dacninae
1.005 ± 1.526
0.512
1.000
Diglossinae
1.293 ± 0.754
0.088
0.792
Hemithraupinae
-0.539 ± 1.483
0.717
1.000
Nemosinae
0.618 ± 1.376
0.654
1.000
Orchesticinae
-10.277 ± 7.447
0.169
1.000
Poospizinae
0.444 ± 0.836
0.596
1.000
Porphyrospizinae
-0.033 ± 1.256
0.974
1.000
Saltatorinae & Emberizoidinae
-0.438 ± 1
0.662
1.000
Sporophilinae
0.841 ± 0.939
0.371
1.000
Tachyphoninae
0.275 ± 0.825
0.739
1.000
brilliance:Coerebinae
-3.41 ± 3.791
0.370
1.000
brilliance:Dacninae
-2.686 ± 5.711
0.639
1.000
brilliance:Diglossinae
-7.868 ± 3.38
0.021*
0.189
brilliance:Hemithraupinae
0.478 ± 8.359
0.954
1.000
brilliance:Nemosinae
-4.371 ± 7.035
0.535
1.000
brilliance:Orchesticinae
68.586 ± 49.796
0.169
1.000
brilliance:Poospizinae
0.444 ± 3.459
0.898
1.000
brilliance:Porphyrospizinae
-2.006 ± 7.676
0.794
1.000
ln(note types)
colour PC1
base
0.00
ln(note types)
ln(colour
volume)
base
0.00
ln(note types)
brilliance
subfamily
0.00
0.623 ± 0.003
0.625 ± 0.003
0.596 ± 0.003
brilliance:Saltatorinae &
Emberizoidinae
-2.196 ± 4.514
0.627
1.000
brilliance:Sporophilinae
-3.12 ± 3.497
0.375
1.000
brilliance:Tachyphoninae
-4.075 ± 4.188
0.332
1.000
colour PC1
-0.021 ± 0.02
0.289
1.000
-0.014 ± 0.025
0.590
1.000
brilliance
0.521 ± 1.747
0.766
1.000
Coerebinae
-0.088 ± 0.676
0.895
1.000
Dacninae
-1.746 ± 1.232
0.158
1.000
Diglossinae
1.07 ± 0.599
0.076
0.684
Hemithraupinae
1.248 ± 1.192
0.296
1.000
Nemosinae
0.135 ± 1.096
0.902
1.000
Orchesticinae
-2.611 ± 6.143
0.671
1.000
Poospizinae
1.405 ± 0.664
0.035*
0.315
Porphyrospizinae
-1.444 ± 1.021
0.159
1.000
Saltatorinae &
Emberizoidinae
0.462 ± 0.801
0.564
1.000
Sporophilinae
1.581 ± 0.737
0.033*
0.297
Tachyphoninae
0.45 ± 0.656
0.494
1.000
brilliance:Coerebinae
1.723 ± 3.158
0.587
1.000
brilliance:Dacninae
7.703 ± 4.66
0.100
0.900
brilliance:Diglossinae
-3.628 ± 2.776
0.193
1.000
ln(colour volume)
37
38
brilliance:Hemithraupinae
-6.196 ± 6.743
0.359
1.000
brilliance:Nemosinae
-3.285 ± 5.675
0.563
1.000
brilliance:Orchesticinae
19.214 ± 41.102
0.640
1.000
brilliance:Poospizinae
-4.703 ± 2.833
0.098
0.882
brilliance:Porphyrospizinae
4.597 ± 6.348
0.470
1.000
brilliance:Saltatorinae &
Emberizoidinae
-2.587 ± 3.7
0.485
1.000
brilliance:Sporophilinae
-5.137 ± 2.854
0.074
0.666
brilliance:Tachyphoninae
-3.857 ± 3.415
0.260
1.000
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
Supplementary Table S6: Results from PGLS analyses of nine comparisons of song and plumage complexity including carotenoid as
an interaction effect from 301 species of tanagers integrated over 50 randomly sampled trees from a post burn-in posterior distribution
of BEAST trees. The performance of the model is indicated by the ΔAICC relative to the model of best fit. Values of Pagel’s λ were
averaged and standard errors were calculated across the posterior distribution of trees and are shown only when the corresponding
model of evolution is the best fit. Interaction effects are denoted with the presence of a colon separating the two interacting terms. The
effect size (β) and its standard error (SE) are also displayed as values that have been averaged over tress from the posterior distribution.
An asterisk indicates if the P is ≤ 0.05.
Song character
song PC1
Color character
color PC1
ΔAICC
77.50
λ ± SE
0.72 ± 0.002
song PC1
color volume
78.59
0.73 ± 0.002
song PC1
brilliance
146.42
0.71 ± 0.002
song length
color PC1
3.48
0.63 ± 0.001
song length
color volume
4.06
0.64 ± 0.001
song length
brilliance
36.77
0.63 ± 0.001
note types
color PC1
10.47
0.62 ± 0.003
note types
color volume
9.28
0.62 ± 0.003
Effect
color PC1
carotenoid
color PC1:carotenoid
color volume
carotenoid
color volume:carotenoid
brilliance
carotenoid
brilliance:carotenoid
color PC1
carotenoid
color PC1:carotenoid
color volume
carotenoid
color volume:carotenoid
brilliance
carotenoid
brilliance:carotenoid
color PC1
carotenoid
color PC1:carotenoid
color volume
carotenoid
color volume:carotenoid
β ± SE
0.076 ± 0.419
0.283 ± 1.993
-1.337 ± 0.639
0.322 ± 0.571
-19.76 ± 9.038
-1.931 ± 0.872
8.554 ± 17.029
7.731 ± 5.679
-48.747 ± 30.653
0.017 ± 0.028
-0.245 ± 0.131
0.095 ± 0.043
0.008 ± 0.038
0.946 ± 0.607
0.115 ± 0.058
-1.765 ± 1.133
-0.324 ± 0.374
1.048 ± 2.028
-0.01 ± 0.024
-0.096 ± 0.111
-0.016 ± 0.036
0.009 ± 0.032
-0.426 ± 0.512
-0.03 ± 0.049
P
0.856
0.887
0.037*
0.574
0.030*
0.028*
0.616
0.175
0.113
0.542
0.062
0.027*
0.840
0.120
0.050*
0.121
0.387
0.606
0.664
0.389
0.653
0.790
0.407
0.548
note types
47
48
brilliance
36.66
0.63 ± 0.002
brilliance
carotenoid
brilliance:carotenoid
-1.178 ± 0.946
-0.009 ± 0.312
-0.703 ± 1.693
0.215
0.950
0.679
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
Supplementary Table S7: Results from PGLS analyses of nine comparisons of song and plumage complexity including structural
coloration as an interaction effect from 301 species of tanagers integrated over 50 randomly sampled trees from a post burn-in
posterior distribution of BEAST trees. The performance of the model is indicated by the ΔAICC relative to the model of best fit.
Values of Pagel’s λ were averaged and standard errors were calculated across the posterior distribution of trees and are shown only
when the corresponding model of evolution is the best fit. Interaction effects are denoted with the presence of a colon separating the
two interacting terms. The effect size (β) and its standard error (SE) are also displayed as values that have been averaged over tress
from the posterior distribution. An asterisk indicates if the P is ≤ 0.05.
Song character
song PC1
Color character
color PC1
ΔAICC
79.48
λ ± SE
0.68 ± 0.002
song PC1
color volume
80.97
0.69 ± 0.002
song PC1
brilliance
147.86
0.69 ± 0.002
song length
color PC1
9.65
0.61 ± 0.002
song length
color volume
8.30
0.62 ± 0.002
song length
brilliance
37.68
0.62 ± 0.002
note types
color PC1
10.79
0.63 ± 0.003
note types
color volume
10.58
0.63 ± 0.003
Effect
color PC1
structural
color PC1:structural
color volume
structural
color volume:structural
brilliance
structural
brilliance:structural
color PC1
structural
color PC1:structural
color volume
structural
color volume:structural
brilliance
structural
brilliance:structural
color PC1
structural
color PC1:structural
color volume
structural
color volume:structural
β ± SE
-0.35 ± 0.456
2.973 ± 2.492
-0.312 ± 0.698
0 ± 0.568
-8.159 ± 10.156
-0.929 ± 0.872
-0.234 ± 18.74
3.409 ± 5.015
-8.546 ± 29.265
0.022 ± 0.03
-0.015 ± 0.163
0.036 ± 0.046
-0.007 ± 0.038
0.84 ± 0.665
0.072 ± 0.057
-1.773 ± 1.248
-0.095 ± 0.331
0.882 ± 1.931
-0.024 ± 0.025
0.056 ± 0.137
0 ± 0.039
-0.014 ± 0.032
0.009 ± 0.559
-0.001 ± 0.048
P
0.444
0.235
0.656
0.967
0.423
0.288
0.964
0.498
0.771
0.466
0.927
0.439
0.844
0.208
0.213
0.157
0.775
0.649
0.356
0.682
0.965
0.664
0.959
0.961
note types
57
58
brilliance
36.82
0.64 ± 0.003
brilliance
structural
brilliance:structural
-2.043 ± 1.039
-0.269 ± 0.276
1.797 ± 1.614
0.051
0.332
0.267
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
Supplementary Table S8: Results from PGLS analyses of nine comparisons of song and plumage complexity including habitat type
as an interaction effect from 301 species of tanagers integrated over 50 randomly sampled trees from a post burn-in posterior
distribution of BEAST trees. The performance of the model is indicated by the ΔAICC relative to the model of best fit. Values of
Pagel’s λ were averaged and standard errors were calculated across the posterior distribution of trees and are shown only when the
corresponding model of evolution is the best fit. Interaction effects are denoted with the presence of a colon separating the two
interacting terms. The effect size (β) and its standard error (SE) are also displayed as values that have been averaged over tress from
the posterior distribution. An asterisk indicates if the P is ≤ 0.05.
Song character
song PC1
Color character
color PC1
ΔAICC
82.09
λ ± SE
0.69 ± 0.002
song PC1
color volume
83.75
0.7 ± 0.002
song PC1
brilliance
148.73
0.7 ± 0.002
song length
color PC1
9.63
0.61 ± 0.001
song length
color volume
9.86
0.62 ± 0.001
song length
brilliance
37.62
0.61 ± 0.002
note types
color PC1
11.65
0.63 ± 0.003
note types
color volume
11.08
0.63 ± 0.003
Effect
color PC1
open
color PC1:open
color volume
open
color volume:open
brilliance
open
brilliance:open
color PC1
open
color PC1:open
color volume
open
color volume:open
brilliance
open
brilliance:open
color PC1
open
color PC1:open
color volume
open
color volume:open
β ± SE
-0.376 ± 0.465
-0.439 ± 1.949
0.056 ± 0.573
-0.401 ± 0.566
2.31 ± 8.863
0.234 ± 0.756
-16.334 ± 20.749
-3.621 ± 4.483
22.549 ± 26.391
0.056 ± 0.03
0.062 ± 0.127
-0.037 ± 0.038
0.037 ± 0.037
-0.283 ± 0.589
-0.032 ± 0.05
-2.213 ± 1.362
-0.124 ± 0.298
1.325 ± 1.749
-0.013 ± 0.026
-0.019 ± 0.107
-0.017 ± 0.032
-0.004 ± 0.031
-0.25 ± 0.493
-0.023 ± 0.042
P
0.420
0.822
0.919
0.480
0.795
0.758
0.433
0.420
0.394
0.067
0.627
0.337
0.320
0.632
0.532
0.106
0.678
0.450
0.611
0.861
0.606
0.905
0.613
0.592
note types
67
68
brilliance
38.07
0.65 ± 0.003
brilliance
open
brilliance:open
-0.77 ± 1.143
0.21 ± 0.249
-1.124 ± 1.462
0.501
0.400
0.443